United States Government Leadership
1. President - George W. Bush
2. Vice-President – Dick Cheney
3. National Security Adviser - Stephen Hadley
4. White House Chief of Staff - Josh Bolten
5. Senior Political Adviser - Karl Rove
6. Secretary of State - Condoleeza Rice
7. Secretary of Defense - Robert Gates
8. Secretary of the Treasury - Henry Paulson, Jr.
9. Attorney General - Alberto Gonzales
10. Secretary of Homeland Security - Michael Chertoff
11. Director of the FBI - Robert Mueller
12. Director of CIA - Gen. Michael Hayden
13. Senate Majority Leader - Harry Reid – D – Nevada
14. Senate Majority Whip - Dick Durbin – D – Illinois
15. Senate Minority Leader - Mitch McConnell – R – Kentucky
16. Senate Minority Whip - Trent Lott – R – Mississippi
17. President Pro Tempore - Robert Byrd – D – West Virginia
18. Speaker of the House - Nancy Pelosi – D- California
19. House Majority Leader - Stenny Hoyer – D – Maryland
20. House Majority Whip - James Clyburn – D – South Carolina
21. House Minority Leader - John Boehner – R – Ohio
22. House Minority Whip - Roy Blunt – R - Missouri
Saturday, January 27, 2007
Wednesday, January 17, 2007
Mid-Term Study Guide
* objectives of government
* equality of opportunity/equality of outcome
* autocracies/oligarchies/democracies
* substantive democracy
* procedural democracy
* main argument against the need for a bill of rights
* Marbury v Madison
* federalism(dual/cooperative)
* sovereignty
* McCulloch v Maryland
* public opinion
* polling/distribution
* party identification
* political socialization
* mass media
* functions of mass media
* "horse race" journalism
* journalistic "spin"
* conventional political participation
* unconventional political participation
* class action suit
* 13th,14th,15th amendments
* referendum
* education and voter turnout
* voter registration laws
* voter turnout
* political parties
* elections
*
* equality of opportunity/equality of outcome
* autocracies/oligarchies/democracies
* substantive democracy
* procedural democracy
* main argument against the need for a bill of rights
* Marbury v Madison
* federalism(dual/cooperative)
* sovereignty
* McCulloch v Maryland
* public opinion
* polling/distribution
* party identification
* political socialization
* mass media
* functions of mass media
* "horse race" journalism
* journalistic "spin"
* conventional political participation
* unconventional political participation
* class action suit
* 13th,14th,15th amendments
* referendum
* education and voter turnout
* voter registration laws
* voter turnout
* political parties
* elections
*
Friday, January 5, 2007
Chapter 10 Notes
Chapter 10 – Interest Groups
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
Define the key terms at the end of the chapter
Outline the positive and negative roles played by interest groups in American politics.
Explain how interest groups form
Create a profile of the kind of person most likely to be represented by an interest group.
Describe the major resources interest groups use in their efforts to influence policy.
List the tactics used by interest groups to win the support of policymakers.
Account for the recent increase in the number of interest groups.
Discuss the difficulties involved in trying to reform the role of interest groups in American politics.
Chapter Synopsis
The existence of interest groups represents a fundamental dilemma for the American political system. Interest groups work to gain advantages for themselves at the expense of the larger population. Indeed, Madison warned that “factions” would go as far as to suppress the rights of others to achieve their objectives. Yet interest groups are a manifestation of liberty; curbing interest groups means curbing freedom.
Interest groups do play many positive roles. Among other things, they represent people before their government. Yet a troubling aspect of interest group politics has to do with the nature of this representation. Some segments of society (particularly the wealthy, well educated, and businesses) are more likely to be represented by lobbying organizations than other constituencies are. This inequity is also manifested in the resources available to groups.
In recent years we have observed an upsurge in the number of interest groups. The most troubling aspect of that growth is the increasingly significant role political action committees, or PAC’s play in financing congressional elections. The greatest portion of PAC contributions come from corporate PAC’s. Critics charge that PAC’s gain undue advantage from the access they gain with contributions. They argue that PAC’s exacerbate the inequities in American society. Defenders respond that PAC’s are a way in which people can participate in politics. Moreover, shouldn’t people have the freedom to join together with other like-minded Americans to promote the candidates they believe in?
Parallel Lecture:
An interest group can be defined as “an organized body of individuals who share some political goals and try to influence public policy”.
Roles of Interest Groups:
Representation: interest groups represent their constituents before government
Participation: they facilitate people’s participation in politics
Education: efforts made by interest groups help to educate their members, the public at large, and government officials
Agenda Building: news issues are brought onto the political agenda through interest group advocacy
Program monitoring: Lobbying organizations keep track of how programs are working in the field and try to persuade government to take action when problems become evident
Interest group formation:
Pluralists such as David Truman see interest groups naturally forming when people are adversely affected by a disturbance
Yet some people who are adversely affected do not organize
Political Scientist Robert Salisbury argues that the quality of leadership is a key determinant of successful interest group formation
He sees an interest group leader as an entrepreneur. The entrepreneur must convince potential members that there are compelling reasons to join the group.
Who is being organized is also an important force affecting group formation. The wealthy and well-educated are more likely to form and join lobbies.
Resources:
One of the most valuable resources a group can have is a large and politically active membership
Business, professional, and trade associations have an easier time holding onto members than citizen groups do.
A citizen group must rely largely on ideological appeals. Many try to attract new members through direct mail (e-mail)
Free-rider problem: non-members can obtain the public policy benefits of the organization’s lobbying even though they pay no dues
Lobbyists can be either full-time employees of the organization, or hired from law firms or public relations firms.
The typical interaction between a lobbyist and a policymaker is the transmission of information from the lobbyist to the official
Political Action Committees pool contributions from group members and donate those funds to candidates for office
Two types of PAC’s have shown the greatest growth in numbers
Corporate PAC’s
Non-Connected PAC’s (ideological PAC’s formed solely for channeling funds)
The primary goal of PAC’s is to gain access to incumbents
The role of PAC’s in financing elections has become the most controversial aspect of interest group politics
In Direct lobbying, a group’s representatives have direct contact with a policymaker
Lobbyists make personal presentations
Testifying before committees is another direct tactic
Organizations may go to court and litigate
In grassroots lobbying, an interest group’s rank and file members, and possibly others outside the organization, try to influence government on some issue
Letter writing is one such tactic
Political protests are sometimes held
Information campaigns are organized efforts to gain public backing by bringing the group’s views to the public’s attention
newspaper advertising, sending speaker’s to meetings, disseminating pamphlets or fact sheets
sponsoring research
some groups publicize the voting records of Congress
Coalition Building takes place when several groups join together in a lobbying campaign
Lobbying must be evaluated through the pluralist and majoritarian frameworks
Lobbying reinforces the pluralist definition of who has power in policymaking
However, since elections are majoritarian, the party in power tends to have more say in policymaking
One problem is membership bias – some types of people (middle class & upper middle classes) are far better represented by organized interest groups
Lower-income people tend to be represented by issue-oriented lobbies whose members are not poor but whose policy positions address the problems of the poor
Public interest groups are those that have no economic self-interest in the policies they pursue
Common Cause pushes for good government legislation
public interest groups can be liberal or conservative
the number of business lobbies has increased significantly
Both the number of trade associations and the number of corporate offices located in Washington, DC has gone up sharply
The growth of federal regulation is one reason the number of business lobbies is growing
Access: while govt. officials may limit access by certain interest groups, other officials, with differing ideologies, keep the door open
However, all forms of access are not equally useful to interest groups, and some groups have better access over time.
Reform: it is difficult to put limits on interest groups without limiting fundamental freedoms
More recently, Congress has required disclosure of all campaign contributions so sources can be identified
In 1995, Congress passed a law requiring lobbyists to register and file semi-annual reports disclosing their clients, the amount of money they spent on lobbying activities, and the amount of money they were paid
Reformers have called for reducing the role of PAC’s in financing elections
The controversy over PAC’s reflects the tension between the principles of freedom and equality
Critics charge that PAC’s reinforce, if not expand, the inequities between rich and poor
PAC supporters counter that people should have the right to join with others who think as they do and support the candidates of their choice
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
Define the key terms at the end of the chapter
Outline the positive and negative roles played by interest groups in American politics.
Explain how interest groups form
Create a profile of the kind of person most likely to be represented by an interest group.
Describe the major resources interest groups use in their efforts to influence policy.
List the tactics used by interest groups to win the support of policymakers.
Account for the recent increase in the number of interest groups.
Discuss the difficulties involved in trying to reform the role of interest groups in American politics.
Chapter Synopsis
The existence of interest groups represents a fundamental dilemma for the American political system. Interest groups work to gain advantages for themselves at the expense of the larger population. Indeed, Madison warned that “factions” would go as far as to suppress the rights of others to achieve their objectives. Yet interest groups are a manifestation of liberty; curbing interest groups means curbing freedom.
Interest groups do play many positive roles. Among other things, they represent people before their government. Yet a troubling aspect of interest group politics has to do with the nature of this representation. Some segments of society (particularly the wealthy, well educated, and businesses) are more likely to be represented by lobbying organizations than other constituencies are. This inequity is also manifested in the resources available to groups.
In recent years we have observed an upsurge in the number of interest groups. The most troubling aspect of that growth is the increasingly significant role political action committees, or PAC’s play in financing congressional elections. The greatest portion of PAC contributions come from corporate PAC’s. Critics charge that PAC’s gain undue advantage from the access they gain with contributions. They argue that PAC’s exacerbate the inequities in American society. Defenders respond that PAC’s are a way in which people can participate in politics. Moreover, shouldn’t people have the freedom to join together with other like-minded Americans to promote the candidates they believe in?
Parallel Lecture:
An interest group can be defined as “an organized body of individuals who share some political goals and try to influence public policy”.
Roles of Interest Groups:
Representation: interest groups represent their constituents before government
Participation: they facilitate people’s participation in politics
Education: efforts made by interest groups help to educate their members, the public at large, and government officials
Agenda Building: news issues are brought onto the political agenda through interest group advocacy
Program monitoring: Lobbying organizations keep track of how programs are working in the field and try to persuade government to take action when problems become evident
Interest group formation:
Pluralists such as David Truman see interest groups naturally forming when people are adversely affected by a disturbance
Yet some people who are adversely affected do not organize
Political Scientist Robert Salisbury argues that the quality of leadership is a key determinant of successful interest group formation
He sees an interest group leader as an entrepreneur. The entrepreneur must convince potential members that there are compelling reasons to join the group.
Who is being organized is also an important force affecting group formation. The wealthy and well-educated are more likely to form and join lobbies.
Resources:
One of the most valuable resources a group can have is a large and politically active membership
Business, professional, and trade associations have an easier time holding onto members than citizen groups do.
A citizen group must rely largely on ideological appeals. Many try to attract new members through direct mail (e-mail)
Free-rider problem: non-members can obtain the public policy benefits of the organization’s lobbying even though they pay no dues
Lobbyists can be either full-time employees of the organization, or hired from law firms or public relations firms.
The typical interaction between a lobbyist and a policymaker is the transmission of information from the lobbyist to the official
Political Action Committees pool contributions from group members and donate those funds to candidates for office
Two types of PAC’s have shown the greatest growth in numbers
Corporate PAC’s
Non-Connected PAC’s (ideological PAC’s formed solely for channeling funds)
The primary goal of PAC’s is to gain access to incumbents
The role of PAC’s in financing elections has become the most controversial aspect of interest group politics
In Direct lobbying, a group’s representatives have direct contact with a policymaker
Lobbyists make personal presentations
Testifying before committees is another direct tactic
Organizations may go to court and litigate
In grassroots lobbying, an interest group’s rank and file members, and possibly others outside the organization, try to influence government on some issue
Letter writing is one such tactic
Political protests are sometimes held
Information campaigns are organized efforts to gain public backing by bringing the group’s views to the public’s attention
newspaper advertising, sending speaker’s to meetings, disseminating pamphlets or fact sheets
sponsoring research
some groups publicize the voting records of Congress
Coalition Building takes place when several groups join together in a lobbying campaign
Lobbying must be evaluated through the pluralist and majoritarian frameworks
Lobbying reinforces the pluralist definition of who has power in policymaking
However, since elections are majoritarian, the party in power tends to have more say in policymaking
One problem is membership bias – some types of people (middle class & upper middle classes) are far better represented by organized interest groups
Lower-income people tend to be represented by issue-oriented lobbies whose members are not poor but whose policy positions address the problems of the poor
Public interest groups are those that have no economic self-interest in the policies they pursue
Common Cause pushes for good government legislation
public interest groups can be liberal or conservative
the number of business lobbies has increased significantly
Both the number of trade associations and the number of corporate offices located in Washington, DC has gone up sharply
The growth of federal regulation is one reason the number of business lobbies is growing
Access: while govt. officials may limit access by certain interest groups, other officials, with differing ideologies, keep the door open
However, all forms of access are not equally useful to interest groups, and some groups have better access over time.
Reform: it is difficult to put limits on interest groups without limiting fundamental freedoms
More recently, Congress has required disclosure of all campaign contributions so sources can be identified
In 1995, Congress passed a law requiring lobbyists to register and file semi-annual reports disclosing their clients, the amount of money they spent on lobbying activities, and the amount of money they were paid
Reformers have called for reducing the role of PAC’s in financing elections
The controversy over PAC’s reflects the tension between the principles of freedom and equality
Critics charge that PAC’s reinforce, if not expand, the inequities between rich and poor
PAC supporters counter that people should have the right to join with others who think as they do and support the candidates of their choice
Tuesday, December 5, 2006
ch 7 & 8 study guide
STUDY GUIDE CH 7 and 8 TEST
Vocab
Conventional participation
Unconventional participation
Political efficacy
Progressivism
Standard socioeconomic model
Political party
Party platform
Multi-party system
Bolter (splinter) party
Structuring the voting choice
1. goals of the militaia movement
2. political institutions and stability
level of govt from which most attention is demanded
class action suit
voting qualifications and expansion of suffrage
Smith v Allwright, 1944
responsibility for voter enfranchisement
women’s suffrage
referendum
initiative
characteristics of non-voters
effect of elections on power and authority of the state
Ross Perot’s main political asset in the ’92 election was his personal wealth
attitude of America’s toward political parties
why did parties develop new methods for nominating candidates?
critical election
election of 1896
most important function of third parties
Congressional Campaign Committees
effect of primary elections on party strength
relationship between national party committees and state and local affiliates
Party loyalty in Congress since the ‘70’s
Functions of elections
Political organization, conventional or unconventional
Programs and policies of the two major parties, and the coalitions that support them
Principles of responsible party government
Organization and structure of the major political parties and internal changes in the last 30-35 years
Vocab
Conventional participation
Unconventional participation
Political efficacy
Progressivism
Standard socioeconomic model
Political party
Party platform
Multi-party system
Bolter (splinter) party
Structuring the voting choice
1. goals of the militaia movement
2. political institutions and stability
level of govt from which most attention is demanded
class action suit
voting qualifications and expansion of suffrage
Smith v Allwright, 1944
responsibility for voter enfranchisement
women’s suffrage
referendum
initiative
characteristics of non-voters
effect of elections on power and authority of the state
Ross Perot’s main political asset in the ’92 election was his personal wealth
attitude of America’s toward political parties
why did parties develop new methods for nominating candidates?
critical election
election of 1896
most important function of third parties
Congressional Campaign Committees
effect of primary elections on party strength
relationship between national party committees and state and local affiliates
Party loyalty in Congress since the ‘70’s
Functions of elections
Political organization, conventional or unconventional
Programs and policies of the two major parties, and the coalitions that support them
Principles of responsible party government
Organization and structure of the major political parties and internal changes in the last 30-35 years
Saturday, December 2, 2006
ch 9 objectives/synopsis
Chapter 9 – Nominations, Elections, and Campaigns
Learning Objectives:
• Define key terms at end of chapter
• Differentiate among the various types of primaries and tell what impact, if any, they have upon the role of political parties
• Outline ways in which Congress has regulated campaign finance
• Describe a typical campaign strategy that might be used by a professional campaign manager
• Explain how the president is indirectly elected through the electoral college and tell the advantages and disadvantages of that system
• Compare the effects of key long-and-short term forces on voters choice
• Decide whether the American party system is more pluralist or more majoritarian in its operation
Chapter Synopsis
The American electoral process has undergone considerable change. Increasingly, election campaigns have evolved from being party centered to being candidate centered. Most candidates for major office are nominated through a primary election. To nominate a presidential candidate, parties employ a mix of presidential primaries, local caucuses, and party conventions. In seeking election, an incumbent usually
Enjoys an advantage over a challenger, especially in elections to Congress, where challengers get far less money from organized groups.
Campaign funds are perhaps the most vital campaign resource. Campaign financing is now heavily regulated by national and state governments. At the national level, the Federal Election Commission enforces limits on financial contributions and requires full disclosure of campaign spending. It also administers the public financing of presidential campaigns. Such financing has effected campaigns by placing limits on campaign costs, by helping to equalize the amounts spent by major candidates in the general election, and by increasing the candidate-centered orientation of elections. Public funds are given to the candidate rather than the political party represented by the individual. Access to such funds has generally further isolated the presidential campaign from congressional campaigns. Candidates usually turn to pollsters or political consultants to develop a strategy that mixes party, issues, and images. The campaign message is then disseminated via the mass media through news coverage and advertising.
All seats in the House of Representatives, one-third of the seats in the Senate, and numerous state and local offices are filled in general elections, which are held in November in even numbered years. The president is elected indirectly through the electoral college, in which each state has a number of electors equal to the total of its senators and representatives. Voters may vote either a straight ticket, in which they choose only one party’s candidates for all offices, or a split ticket, in which they choose candidates from different parties.
Individual voting choices can be explained as products of long-term forces, which operate over a series of elections, and short-term forces, which are associated with particular elections. Party identification is the most important long-term force. The most important short-term forces are candidates attributes and policy positions. Most studies of presidential elections show that issues are less important than either party identification or the candidate’s image when people cast their ballots.
Although the party affiliation of the candidates and the party identification of the voters explain a good deal of electoral behavior, party organizations are not central to elections in the United States. Both major parties fail to meet two of the four principles of responsible government noted in chapter 8. First, they do not choose candidates according to party programs. Second, the governing party cannot be held responsible at the next election for executing its program because there is no governing party when the president is of one party and the Congress is controlled by the other. Even though parties do not satisfy all elements of the majoritarian model, in the United States parties do fit well into the pluralist model. They function as giant interest groups themselves, and their decentralized organization provides many opportunities for other organized groups to back candidates that favor their interests.
Learning Objectives:
• Define key terms at end of chapter
• Differentiate among the various types of primaries and tell what impact, if any, they have upon the role of political parties
• Outline ways in which Congress has regulated campaign finance
• Describe a typical campaign strategy that might be used by a professional campaign manager
• Explain how the president is indirectly elected through the electoral college and tell the advantages and disadvantages of that system
• Compare the effects of key long-and-short term forces on voters choice
• Decide whether the American party system is more pluralist or more majoritarian in its operation
Chapter Synopsis
The American electoral process has undergone considerable change. Increasingly, election campaigns have evolved from being party centered to being candidate centered. Most candidates for major office are nominated through a primary election. To nominate a presidential candidate, parties employ a mix of presidential primaries, local caucuses, and party conventions. In seeking election, an incumbent usually
Enjoys an advantage over a challenger, especially in elections to Congress, where challengers get far less money from organized groups.
Campaign funds are perhaps the most vital campaign resource. Campaign financing is now heavily regulated by national and state governments. At the national level, the Federal Election Commission enforces limits on financial contributions and requires full disclosure of campaign spending. It also administers the public financing of presidential campaigns. Such financing has effected campaigns by placing limits on campaign costs, by helping to equalize the amounts spent by major candidates in the general election, and by increasing the candidate-centered orientation of elections. Public funds are given to the candidate rather than the political party represented by the individual. Access to such funds has generally further isolated the presidential campaign from congressional campaigns. Candidates usually turn to pollsters or political consultants to develop a strategy that mixes party, issues, and images. The campaign message is then disseminated via the mass media through news coverage and advertising.
All seats in the House of Representatives, one-third of the seats in the Senate, and numerous state and local offices are filled in general elections, which are held in November in even numbered years. The president is elected indirectly through the electoral college, in which each state has a number of electors equal to the total of its senators and representatives. Voters may vote either a straight ticket, in which they choose only one party’s candidates for all offices, or a split ticket, in which they choose candidates from different parties.
Individual voting choices can be explained as products of long-term forces, which operate over a series of elections, and short-term forces, which are associated with particular elections. Party identification is the most important long-term force. The most important short-term forces are candidates attributes and policy positions. Most studies of presidential elections show that issues are less important than either party identification or the candidate’s image when people cast their ballots.
Although the party affiliation of the candidates and the party identification of the voters explain a good deal of electoral behavior, party organizations are not central to elections in the United States. Both major parties fail to meet two of the four principles of responsible government noted in chapter 8. First, they do not choose candidates according to party programs. Second, the governing party cannot be held responsible at the next election for executing its program because there is no governing party when the president is of one party and the Congress is controlled by the other. Even though parties do not satisfy all elements of the majoritarian model, in the United States parties do fit well into the pluralist model. They function as giant interest groups themselves, and their decentralized organization provides many opportunities for other organized groups to back candidates that favor their interests.
ch 9 notes
Chapter 9 Notes
• Of all the institutions that deal with government, the political party has lost the most influence over the past 40 years
• Political party organizations were the primary way in which presidential campaigns were conducted in the 19th and early 20th centuries
• Today, presidential campaign tactics are controlled by a candidate’s personal campaign organization
• Ordinary party voters in the U.S. have far more control over the nomination process than do voters in other democratic countries
• Compared with most West European countries, the U.S. method of holding primary elections to nominate candidates for public office is uncommon; in most west European countries candidates are interviewed and selected by party activists
• Most party candidates for major office in the US are nominated through primary elections
• A closed primary is one in which voters must declare their party affiliation before voting and is the most frequently used
• It has traditionally been thought that democratic and republican primary voters are more liberal and conservative, respectively, than average party members. This thinking has recently been called into question.
• The blanket primary allows voters to select candidates for both parties simultaneously
• Political parties prefer closed primaries because it helps ensure that candidates are chosen by people who share the goals and values of the party
• Presidential candidates are officially nominated at the party convention
• A difference between a caucus and a primary is that the caucus allows voters to debate and exchange views before casting their ballots
• In all Democratic presidential primaries candidates that win at least 15% of the vote divide delegates proportionately
• A meeting of party supporters to choose delegates to attend a subsequent meeting at which party decisions are made is a local caucus
• Since the 1960’s, campaigns have become longer and more media focused, and fund raising is more complex
• The New Hampshire presidential primary gets significant political and media attention because it is the first one to occur each election year
• One consequence of the presidential nominating process in the US is that candidates have their own personal campaign organizations and those who win the nomination do so mainly on their own and owe little or nothing to the national party organization
• A mid-term or off-year election is one in which there is no presidential race
• The 23rd amendment to the Constitution awarded 3 electoral votes to Washington DC
• A state’s votes in the electoral college are equal to the number of its senators and representatives in Congress. This is recalculated every 10 years after the census
• The number of electoral votes needed to win the presidency is 270.
• The greatest danger posed by the electoral college is that the candidate winning the popular vote might not receive a majority of the electoral vote
• Over the last hundred years, the electoral college has magnified the margin of victory that the winner received in the popular vote
• For the last 40 years Democrats have tended to do better in Congressional elections and Republicans in presidential elections
• Incumbent candidates tend to have an advantage over a challenger (money, name recognition, party support)
• The term political context refers to the incumbency status of the candidates, party registrations, and the socioeconomic qualities of the electorate
• The first effective law to regulate campaign was the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971
• Candidates running for president can qualify for federal funding by raising $5000 in each of 20 states
• The Federal Election Commission is a regulatory agency whose purpose is to enforce limits on campaign contributions and administer public funding of campaigns
• Public financing of presidential campaigns began in 1974, primarily to discourage illegal fund raising
• In a general election campaign, presidential nominees may receive twice the primary election limit in public funds if no private funds are used
• One practical effect of public financing of presidential campaigns has been an equalization in the amounts spent by the major candidates in the general election
• A party-centered strategy is appropriate when voters have little political information. It is not appropriate in most primary elections because voters are of the same party
• A basic assumption among campaign managers and political media is that the American people have little interest in politics and a short attention span
• Polling is used to get feedback about the success or failure of various campaign tactics and to discover voters’ perceptions of candidates and voters’ opinions about certain issues
• The first objective of campaign advertising is to produce a high level of candidate name recognition among voters
• The largest amount of spending goes for television and radio spots
• When producing video spots for a candidate, the emphasis is on creation of images and mood
• Party identification is the most important long-term force affecting US elections
• Since the 1950’s party voting has decreased
• The primary importance of the Contract with America was in setting the agenda for the 104th Congres
• Candidates running for president often diverge from the party platform on many issues
• Of all the institutions that deal with government, the political party has lost the most influence over the past 40 years
• Political party organizations were the primary way in which presidential campaigns were conducted in the 19th and early 20th centuries
• Today, presidential campaign tactics are controlled by a candidate’s personal campaign organization
• Ordinary party voters in the U.S. have far more control over the nomination process than do voters in other democratic countries
• Compared with most West European countries, the U.S. method of holding primary elections to nominate candidates for public office is uncommon; in most west European countries candidates are interviewed and selected by party activists
• Most party candidates for major office in the US are nominated through primary elections
• A closed primary is one in which voters must declare their party affiliation before voting and is the most frequently used
• It has traditionally been thought that democratic and republican primary voters are more liberal and conservative, respectively, than average party members. This thinking has recently been called into question.
• The blanket primary allows voters to select candidates for both parties simultaneously
• Political parties prefer closed primaries because it helps ensure that candidates are chosen by people who share the goals and values of the party
• Presidential candidates are officially nominated at the party convention
• A difference between a caucus and a primary is that the caucus allows voters to debate and exchange views before casting their ballots
• In all Democratic presidential primaries candidates that win at least 15% of the vote divide delegates proportionately
• A meeting of party supporters to choose delegates to attend a subsequent meeting at which party decisions are made is a local caucus
• Since the 1960’s, campaigns have become longer and more media focused, and fund raising is more complex
• The New Hampshire presidential primary gets significant political and media attention because it is the first one to occur each election year
• One consequence of the presidential nominating process in the US is that candidates have their own personal campaign organizations and those who win the nomination do so mainly on their own and owe little or nothing to the national party organization
• A mid-term or off-year election is one in which there is no presidential race
• The 23rd amendment to the Constitution awarded 3 electoral votes to Washington DC
• A state’s votes in the electoral college are equal to the number of its senators and representatives in Congress. This is recalculated every 10 years after the census
• The number of electoral votes needed to win the presidency is 270.
• The greatest danger posed by the electoral college is that the candidate winning the popular vote might not receive a majority of the electoral vote
• Over the last hundred years, the electoral college has magnified the margin of victory that the winner received in the popular vote
• For the last 40 years Democrats have tended to do better in Congressional elections and Republicans in presidential elections
• Incumbent candidates tend to have an advantage over a challenger (money, name recognition, party support)
• The term political context refers to the incumbency status of the candidates, party registrations, and the socioeconomic qualities of the electorate
• The first effective law to regulate campaign was the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971
• Candidates running for president can qualify for federal funding by raising $5000 in each of 20 states
• The Federal Election Commission is a regulatory agency whose purpose is to enforce limits on campaign contributions and administer public funding of campaigns
• Public financing of presidential campaigns began in 1974, primarily to discourage illegal fund raising
• In a general election campaign, presidential nominees may receive twice the primary election limit in public funds if no private funds are used
• One practical effect of public financing of presidential campaigns has been an equalization in the amounts spent by the major candidates in the general election
• A party-centered strategy is appropriate when voters have little political information. It is not appropriate in most primary elections because voters are of the same party
• A basic assumption among campaign managers and political media is that the American people have little interest in politics and a short attention span
• Polling is used to get feedback about the success or failure of various campaign tactics and to discover voters’ perceptions of candidates and voters’ opinions about certain issues
• The first objective of campaign advertising is to produce a high level of candidate name recognition among voters
• The largest amount of spending goes for television and radio spots
• When producing video spots for a candidate, the emphasis is on creation of images and mood
• Party identification is the most important long-term force affecting US elections
• Since the 1950’s party voting has decreased
• The primary importance of the Contract with America was in setting the agenda for the 104th Congres
• Candidates running for president often diverge from the party platform on many issues
Wednesday, November 29, 2006
ch 8 synopsis
Chapter 8 – Political Parties
Learning Objectives:
· Define the key terms at the end of the chapter
· Describe the four most important functions of political parties
· Trace the history of major political parties in America
· List the functions performed by minor political parties
· Account for the emergence of a two-party system in the U.S.
· Assess the extent of party identification in the U.S. and its influence on voting choice.
· Summarize the ideological and organizational differences between Republicans and Democrats
Chapter Synopsis
Many people equate democracy with the presence of competitive political organizations. In a democratic political system, parties have four major functions: (1) nominating candidates for office; (2) structuring the voting choice; (3) proposing alternative government programs; (4) coordinating the actions of government officials.
Political party activity in the U.S. has consistently revolved around two major parties alternating power. The Federalists, Democratic-Republicans, and Whigs formed the basis of two party systems earlier in our history. Today, the long traditions of the Democratic Party, founded in 1828, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854, virtually close out the field to any serious challenge from a young, upstart party.
The balance between the Democrats and Republicans in the current party system can be usefully analyzed according to three critical elections. A rough balance of power between the parties followed the election of 1860. The election of 1896 led to the Republicans emergence as the majority party. The election of 1932 led to a majority of voters identifying themselves as Democrats, which has continued to the present day.
Minority parties fall into four categories: (1) bolter/splinter parties, which are split-off factions from a major party; (2) farmer-labor parties, which have a populist, working-class orientation; (3) parties of ideological protest, such as the Socialist and Libertarian Parties; and, (4) single-issue parties, such as the Prohibition Party. Minor parties on the whole have not been strong vote getters, but they have had some success as policy advocates. They also serve as a political safety valve by giving discontented groups the opportunity to air their policy views.
Party identification, a state of mind or psychological attachment to a political party, should be distinguished from voting, which is a behavior. Most Americans readily identify with one of the two major parties, and this predisposition is the most important long-term force affecting U.S. elections. Short-term factors, however – such as candidate attributes and policy positions – may lead a voter to abandon his/her party’s nominee and vote instead for a candidate of the opposing party.
Although both the Democrats and the Republicans support the concept of capitalism, there is a definite ideological gap between government roles favored by the parties. In particular, the Democratic activists are likely to be liberals or moderates, whereas Republicans are more inclined toward conservatism.
Neither Republicans nor Democrats have a hierarchical party structure, and the national party has little control over decentralized state and local election campaigns. The candidate nomination process in American party politics, unlike other party systems in the world, centers on election rather than by selection by party leaders.
Learning Objectives:
· Define the key terms at the end of the chapter
· Describe the four most important functions of political parties
· Trace the history of major political parties in America
· List the functions performed by minor political parties
· Account for the emergence of a two-party system in the U.S.
· Assess the extent of party identification in the U.S. and its influence on voting choice.
· Summarize the ideological and organizational differences between Republicans and Democrats
Chapter Synopsis
Many people equate democracy with the presence of competitive political organizations. In a democratic political system, parties have four major functions: (1) nominating candidates for office; (2) structuring the voting choice; (3) proposing alternative government programs; (4) coordinating the actions of government officials.
Political party activity in the U.S. has consistently revolved around two major parties alternating power. The Federalists, Democratic-Republicans, and Whigs formed the basis of two party systems earlier in our history. Today, the long traditions of the Democratic Party, founded in 1828, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854, virtually close out the field to any serious challenge from a young, upstart party.
The balance between the Democrats and Republicans in the current party system can be usefully analyzed according to three critical elections. A rough balance of power between the parties followed the election of 1860. The election of 1896 led to the Republicans emergence as the majority party. The election of 1932 led to a majority of voters identifying themselves as Democrats, which has continued to the present day.
Minority parties fall into four categories: (1) bolter/splinter parties, which are split-off factions from a major party; (2) farmer-labor parties, which have a populist, working-class orientation; (3) parties of ideological protest, such as the Socialist and Libertarian Parties; and, (4) single-issue parties, such as the Prohibition Party. Minor parties on the whole have not been strong vote getters, but they have had some success as policy advocates. They also serve as a political safety valve by giving discontented groups the opportunity to air their policy views.
Party identification, a state of mind or psychological attachment to a political party, should be distinguished from voting, which is a behavior. Most Americans readily identify with one of the two major parties, and this predisposition is the most important long-term force affecting U.S. elections. Short-term factors, however – such as candidate attributes and policy positions – may lead a voter to abandon his/her party’s nominee and vote instead for a candidate of the opposing party.
Although both the Democrats and the Republicans support the concept of capitalism, there is a definite ideological gap between government roles favored by the parties. In particular, the Democratic activists are likely to be liberals or moderates, whereas Republicans are more inclined toward conservatism.
Neither Republicans nor Democrats have a hierarchical party structure, and the national party has little control over decentralized state and local election campaigns. The candidate nomination process in American party politics, unlike other party systems in the world, centers on election rather than by selection by party leaders.
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