STUDY GUIDE CH 7 and 8 TEST
Vocab
Conventional participation
Unconventional participation
Political efficacy
Progressivism
Standard socioeconomic model
Political party
Party platform
Multi-party system
Bolter (splinter) party
Structuring the voting choice
1. goals of the militaia movement
2. political institutions and stability
level of govt from which most attention is demanded
class action suit
voting qualifications and expansion of suffrage
Smith v Allwright, 1944
responsibility for voter enfranchisement
women’s suffrage
referendum
initiative
characteristics of non-voters
effect of elections on power and authority of the state
Ross Perot’s main political asset in the ’92 election was his personal wealth
attitude of America’s toward political parties
why did parties develop new methods for nominating candidates?
critical election
election of 1896
most important function of third parties
Congressional Campaign Committees
effect of primary elections on party strength
relationship between national party committees and state and local affiliates
Party loyalty in Congress since the ‘70’s
Functions of elections
Political organization, conventional or unconventional
Programs and policies of the two major parties, and the coalitions that support them
Principles of responsible party government
Organization and structure of the major political parties and internal changes in the last 30-35 years
Tuesday, December 5, 2006
Saturday, December 2, 2006
ch 9 objectives/synopsis
Chapter 9 – Nominations, Elections, and Campaigns
Learning Objectives:
• Define key terms at end of chapter
• Differentiate among the various types of primaries and tell what impact, if any, they have upon the role of political parties
• Outline ways in which Congress has regulated campaign finance
• Describe a typical campaign strategy that might be used by a professional campaign manager
• Explain how the president is indirectly elected through the electoral college and tell the advantages and disadvantages of that system
• Compare the effects of key long-and-short term forces on voters choice
• Decide whether the American party system is more pluralist or more majoritarian in its operation
Chapter Synopsis
The American electoral process has undergone considerable change. Increasingly, election campaigns have evolved from being party centered to being candidate centered. Most candidates for major office are nominated through a primary election. To nominate a presidential candidate, parties employ a mix of presidential primaries, local caucuses, and party conventions. In seeking election, an incumbent usually
Enjoys an advantage over a challenger, especially in elections to Congress, where challengers get far less money from organized groups.
Campaign funds are perhaps the most vital campaign resource. Campaign financing is now heavily regulated by national and state governments. At the national level, the Federal Election Commission enforces limits on financial contributions and requires full disclosure of campaign spending. It also administers the public financing of presidential campaigns. Such financing has effected campaigns by placing limits on campaign costs, by helping to equalize the amounts spent by major candidates in the general election, and by increasing the candidate-centered orientation of elections. Public funds are given to the candidate rather than the political party represented by the individual. Access to such funds has generally further isolated the presidential campaign from congressional campaigns. Candidates usually turn to pollsters or political consultants to develop a strategy that mixes party, issues, and images. The campaign message is then disseminated via the mass media through news coverage and advertising.
All seats in the House of Representatives, one-third of the seats in the Senate, and numerous state and local offices are filled in general elections, which are held in November in even numbered years. The president is elected indirectly through the electoral college, in which each state has a number of electors equal to the total of its senators and representatives. Voters may vote either a straight ticket, in which they choose only one party’s candidates for all offices, or a split ticket, in which they choose candidates from different parties.
Individual voting choices can be explained as products of long-term forces, which operate over a series of elections, and short-term forces, which are associated with particular elections. Party identification is the most important long-term force. The most important short-term forces are candidates attributes and policy positions. Most studies of presidential elections show that issues are less important than either party identification or the candidate’s image when people cast their ballots.
Although the party affiliation of the candidates and the party identification of the voters explain a good deal of electoral behavior, party organizations are not central to elections in the United States. Both major parties fail to meet two of the four principles of responsible government noted in chapter 8. First, they do not choose candidates according to party programs. Second, the governing party cannot be held responsible at the next election for executing its program because there is no governing party when the president is of one party and the Congress is controlled by the other. Even though parties do not satisfy all elements of the majoritarian model, in the United States parties do fit well into the pluralist model. They function as giant interest groups themselves, and their decentralized organization provides many opportunities for other organized groups to back candidates that favor their interests.
Learning Objectives:
• Define key terms at end of chapter
• Differentiate among the various types of primaries and tell what impact, if any, they have upon the role of political parties
• Outline ways in which Congress has regulated campaign finance
• Describe a typical campaign strategy that might be used by a professional campaign manager
• Explain how the president is indirectly elected through the electoral college and tell the advantages and disadvantages of that system
• Compare the effects of key long-and-short term forces on voters choice
• Decide whether the American party system is more pluralist or more majoritarian in its operation
Chapter Synopsis
The American electoral process has undergone considerable change. Increasingly, election campaigns have evolved from being party centered to being candidate centered. Most candidates for major office are nominated through a primary election. To nominate a presidential candidate, parties employ a mix of presidential primaries, local caucuses, and party conventions. In seeking election, an incumbent usually
Enjoys an advantage over a challenger, especially in elections to Congress, where challengers get far less money from organized groups.
Campaign funds are perhaps the most vital campaign resource. Campaign financing is now heavily regulated by national and state governments. At the national level, the Federal Election Commission enforces limits on financial contributions and requires full disclosure of campaign spending. It also administers the public financing of presidential campaigns. Such financing has effected campaigns by placing limits on campaign costs, by helping to equalize the amounts spent by major candidates in the general election, and by increasing the candidate-centered orientation of elections. Public funds are given to the candidate rather than the political party represented by the individual. Access to such funds has generally further isolated the presidential campaign from congressional campaigns. Candidates usually turn to pollsters or political consultants to develop a strategy that mixes party, issues, and images. The campaign message is then disseminated via the mass media through news coverage and advertising.
All seats in the House of Representatives, one-third of the seats in the Senate, and numerous state and local offices are filled in general elections, which are held in November in even numbered years. The president is elected indirectly through the electoral college, in which each state has a number of electors equal to the total of its senators and representatives. Voters may vote either a straight ticket, in which they choose only one party’s candidates for all offices, or a split ticket, in which they choose candidates from different parties.
Individual voting choices can be explained as products of long-term forces, which operate over a series of elections, and short-term forces, which are associated with particular elections. Party identification is the most important long-term force. The most important short-term forces are candidates attributes and policy positions. Most studies of presidential elections show that issues are less important than either party identification or the candidate’s image when people cast their ballots.
Although the party affiliation of the candidates and the party identification of the voters explain a good deal of electoral behavior, party organizations are not central to elections in the United States. Both major parties fail to meet two of the four principles of responsible government noted in chapter 8. First, they do not choose candidates according to party programs. Second, the governing party cannot be held responsible at the next election for executing its program because there is no governing party when the president is of one party and the Congress is controlled by the other. Even though parties do not satisfy all elements of the majoritarian model, in the United States parties do fit well into the pluralist model. They function as giant interest groups themselves, and their decentralized organization provides many opportunities for other organized groups to back candidates that favor their interests.
ch 9 notes
Chapter 9 Notes
• Of all the institutions that deal with government, the political party has lost the most influence over the past 40 years
• Political party organizations were the primary way in which presidential campaigns were conducted in the 19th and early 20th centuries
• Today, presidential campaign tactics are controlled by a candidate’s personal campaign organization
• Ordinary party voters in the U.S. have far more control over the nomination process than do voters in other democratic countries
• Compared with most West European countries, the U.S. method of holding primary elections to nominate candidates for public office is uncommon; in most west European countries candidates are interviewed and selected by party activists
• Most party candidates for major office in the US are nominated through primary elections
• A closed primary is one in which voters must declare their party affiliation before voting and is the most frequently used
• It has traditionally been thought that democratic and republican primary voters are more liberal and conservative, respectively, than average party members. This thinking has recently been called into question.
• The blanket primary allows voters to select candidates for both parties simultaneously
• Political parties prefer closed primaries because it helps ensure that candidates are chosen by people who share the goals and values of the party
• Presidential candidates are officially nominated at the party convention
• A difference between a caucus and a primary is that the caucus allows voters to debate and exchange views before casting their ballots
• In all Democratic presidential primaries candidates that win at least 15% of the vote divide delegates proportionately
• A meeting of party supporters to choose delegates to attend a subsequent meeting at which party decisions are made is a local caucus
• Since the 1960’s, campaigns have become longer and more media focused, and fund raising is more complex
• The New Hampshire presidential primary gets significant political and media attention because it is the first one to occur each election year
• One consequence of the presidential nominating process in the US is that candidates have their own personal campaign organizations and those who win the nomination do so mainly on their own and owe little or nothing to the national party organization
• A mid-term or off-year election is one in which there is no presidential race
• The 23rd amendment to the Constitution awarded 3 electoral votes to Washington DC
• A state’s votes in the electoral college are equal to the number of its senators and representatives in Congress. This is recalculated every 10 years after the census
• The number of electoral votes needed to win the presidency is 270.
• The greatest danger posed by the electoral college is that the candidate winning the popular vote might not receive a majority of the electoral vote
• Over the last hundred years, the electoral college has magnified the margin of victory that the winner received in the popular vote
• For the last 40 years Democrats have tended to do better in Congressional elections and Republicans in presidential elections
• Incumbent candidates tend to have an advantage over a challenger (money, name recognition, party support)
• The term political context refers to the incumbency status of the candidates, party registrations, and the socioeconomic qualities of the electorate
• The first effective law to regulate campaign was the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971
• Candidates running for president can qualify for federal funding by raising $5000 in each of 20 states
• The Federal Election Commission is a regulatory agency whose purpose is to enforce limits on campaign contributions and administer public funding of campaigns
• Public financing of presidential campaigns began in 1974, primarily to discourage illegal fund raising
• In a general election campaign, presidential nominees may receive twice the primary election limit in public funds if no private funds are used
• One practical effect of public financing of presidential campaigns has been an equalization in the amounts spent by the major candidates in the general election
• A party-centered strategy is appropriate when voters have little political information. It is not appropriate in most primary elections because voters are of the same party
• A basic assumption among campaign managers and political media is that the American people have little interest in politics and a short attention span
• Polling is used to get feedback about the success or failure of various campaign tactics and to discover voters’ perceptions of candidates and voters’ opinions about certain issues
• The first objective of campaign advertising is to produce a high level of candidate name recognition among voters
• The largest amount of spending goes for television and radio spots
• When producing video spots for a candidate, the emphasis is on creation of images and mood
• Party identification is the most important long-term force affecting US elections
• Since the 1950’s party voting has decreased
• The primary importance of the Contract with America was in setting the agenda for the 104th Congres
• Candidates running for president often diverge from the party platform on many issues
• Of all the institutions that deal with government, the political party has lost the most influence over the past 40 years
• Political party organizations were the primary way in which presidential campaigns were conducted in the 19th and early 20th centuries
• Today, presidential campaign tactics are controlled by a candidate’s personal campaign organization
• Ordinary party voters in the U.S. have far more control over the nomination process than do voters in other democratic countries
• Compared with most West European countries, the U.S. method of holding primary elections to nominate candidates for public office is uncommon; in most west European countries candidates are interviewed and selected by party activists
• Most party candidates for major office in the US are nominated through primary elections
• A closed primary is one in which voters must declare their party affiliation before voting and is the most frequently used
• It has traditionally been thought that democratic and republican primary voters are more liberal and conservative, respectively, than average party members. This thinking has recently been called into question.
• The blanket primary allows voters to select candidates for both parties simultaneously
• Political parties prefer closed primaries because it helps ensure that candidates are chosen by people who share the goals and values of the party
• Presidential candidates are officially nominated at the party convention
• A difference between a caucus and a primary is that the caucus allows voters to debate and exchange views before casting their ballots
• In all Democratic presidential primaries candidates that win at least 15% of the vote divide delegates proportionately
• A meeting of party supporters to choose delegates to attend a subsequent meeting at which party decisions are made is a local caucus
• Since the 1960’s, campaigns have become longer and more media focused, and fund raising is more complex
• The New Hampshire presidential primary gets significant political and media attention because it is the first one to occur each election year
• One consequence of the presidential nominating process in the US is that candidates have their own personal campaign organizations and those who win the nomination do so mainly on their own and owe little or nothing to the national party organization
• A mid-term or off-year election is one in which there is no presidential race
• The 23rd amendment to the Constitution awarded 3 electoral votes to Washington DC
• A state’s votes in the electoral college are equal to the number of its senators and representatives in Congress. This is recalculated every 10 years after the census
• The number of electoral votes needed to win the presidency is 270.
• The greatest danger posed by the electoral college is that the candidate winning the popular vote might not receive a majority of the electoral vote
• Over the last hundred years, the electoral college has magnified the margin of victory that the winner received in the popular vote
• For the last 40 years Democrats have tended to do better in Congressional elections and Republicans in presidential elections
• Incumbent candidates tend to have an advantage over a challenger (money, name recognition, party support)
• The term political context refers to the incumbency status of the candidates, party registrations, and the socioeconomic qualities of the electorate
• The first effective law to regulate campaign was the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971
• Candidates running for president can qualify for federal funding by raising $5000 in each of 20 states
• The Federal Election Commission is a regulatory agency whose purpose is to enforce limits on campaign contributions and administer public funding of campaigns
• Public financing of presidential campaigns began in 1974, primarily to discourage illegal fund raising
• In a general election campaign, presidential nominees may receive twice the primary election limit in public funds if no private funds are used
• One practical effect of public financing of presidential campaigns has been an equalization in the amounts spent by the major candidates in the general election
• A party-centered strategy is appropriate when voters have little political information. It is not appropriate in most primary elections because voters are of the same party
• A basic assumption among campaign managers and political media is that the American people have little interest in politics and a short attention span
• Polling is used to get feedback about the success or failure of various campaign tactics and to discover voters’ perceptions of candidates and voters’ opinions about certain issues
• The first objective of campaign advertising is to produce a high level of candidate name recognition among voters
• The largest amount of spending goes for television and radio spots
• When producing video spots for a candidate, the emphasis is on creation of images and mood
• Party identification is the most important long-term force affecting US elections
• Since the 1950’s party voting has decreased
• The primary importance of the Contract with America was in setting the agenda for the 104th Congres
• Candidates running for president often diverge from the party platform on many issues
Wednesday, November 29, 2006
ch 8 synopsis
Chapter 8 – Political Parties
Learning Objectives:
· Define the key terms at the end of the chapter
· Describe the four most important functions of political parties
· Trace the history of major political parties in America
· List the functions performed by minor political parties
· Account for the emergence of a two-party system in the U.S.
· Assess the extent of party identification in the U.S. and its influence on voting choice.
· Summarize the ideological and organizational differences between Republicans and Democrats
Chapter Synopsis
Many people equate democracy with the presence of competitive political organizations. In a democratic political system, parties have four major functions: (1) nominating candidates for office; (2) structuring the voting choice; (3) proposing alternative government programs; (4) coordinating the actions of government officials.
Political party activity in the U.S. has consistently revolved around two major parties alternating power. The Federalists, Democratic-Republicans, and Whigs formed the basis of two party systems earlier in our history. Today, the long traditions of the Democratic Party, founded in 1828, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854, virtually close out the field to any serious challenge from a young, upstart party.
The balance between the Democrats and Republicans in the current party system can be usefully analyzed according to three critical elections. A rough balance of power between the parties followed the election of 1860. The election of 1896 led to the Republicans emergence as the majority party. The election of 1932 led to a majority of voters identifying themselves as Democrats, which has continued to the present day.
Minority parties fall into four categories: (1) bolter/splinter parties, which are split-off factions from a major party; (2) farmer-labor parties, which have a populist, working-class orientation; (3) parties of ideological protest, such as the Socialist and Libertarian Parties; and, (4) single-issue parties, such as the Prohibition Party. Minor parties on the whole have not been strong vote getters, but they have had some success as policy advocates. They also serve as a political safety valve by giving discontented groups the opportunity to air their policy views.
Party identification, a state of mind or psychological attachment to a political party, should be distinguished from voting, which is a behavior. Most Americans readily identify with one of the two major parties, and this predisposition is the most important long-term force affecting U.S. elections. Short-term factors, however – such as candidate attributes and policy positions – may lead a voter to abandon his/her party’s nominee and vote instead for a candidate of the opposing party.
Although both the Democrats and the Republicans support the concept of capitalism, there is a definite ideological gap between government roles favored by the parties. In particular, the Democratic activists are likely to be liberals or moderates, whereas Republicans are more inclined toward conservatism.
Neither Republicans nor Democrats have a hierarchical party structure, and the national party has little control over decentralized state and local election campaigns. The candidate nomination process in American party politics, unlike other party systems in the world, centers on election rather than by selection by party leaders.
Learning Objectives:
· Define the key terms at the end of the chapter
· Describe the four most important functions of political parties
· Trace the history of major political parties in America
· List the functions performed by minor political parties
· Account for the emergence of a two-party system in the U.S.
· Assess the extent of party identification in the U.S. and its influence on voting choice.
· Summarize the ideological and organizational differences between Republicans and Democrats
Chapter Synopsis
Many people equate democracy with the presence of competitive political organizations. In a democratic political system, parties have four major functions: (1) nominating candidates for office; (2) structuring the voting choice; (3) proposing alternative government programs; (4) coordinating the actions of government officials.
Political party activity in the U.S. has consistently revolved around two major parties alternating power. The Federalists, Democratic-Republicans, and Whigs formed the basis of two party systems earlier in our history. Today, the long traditions of the Democratic Party, founded in 1828, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854, virtually close out the field to any serious challenge from a young, upstart party.
The balance between the Democrats and Republicans in the current party system can be usefully analyzed according to three critical elections. A rough balance of power between the parties followed the election of 1860. The election of 1896 led to the Republicans emergence as the majority party. The election of 1932 led to a majority of voters identifying themselves as Democrats, which has continued to the present day.
Minority parties fall into four categories: (1) bolter/splinter parties, which are split-off factions from a major party; (2) farmer-labor parties, which have a populist, working-class orientation; (3) parties of ideological protest, such as the Socialist and Libertarian Parties; and, (4) single-issue parties, such as the Prohibition Party. Minor parties on the whole have not been strong vote getters, but they have had some success as policy advocates. They also serve as a political safety valve by giving discontented groups the opportunity to air their policy views.
Party identification, a state of mind or psychological attachment to a political party, should be distinguished from voting, which is a behavior. Most Americans readily identify with one of the two major parties, and this predisposition is the most important long-term force affecting U.S. elections. Short-term factors, however – such as candidate attributes and policy positions – may lead a voter to abandon his/her party’s nominee and vote instead for a candidate of the opposing party.
Although both the Democrats and the Republicans support the concept of capitalism, there is a definite ideological gap between government roles favored by the parties. In particular, the Democratic activists are likely to be liberals or moderates, whereas Republicans are more inclined toward conservatism.
Neither Republicans nor Democrats have a hierarchical party structure, and the national party has little control over decentralized state and local election campaigns. The candidate nomination process in American party politics, unlike other party systems in the world, centers on election rather than by selection by party leaders.
ch 8 outline
Chapter 8: The Preparty Period
I. Political Parties and their Functions
A. Political Parties
1. Political parties play an odd role in American Democracy. Most Americans believe that the US would not have a democracy without the existence of parties. But a majority also believes they are not to be trusted. Americans see political parties as a necessary part of political life, but do not support their use.
B. What is a Political Party?
1. A political party sponsors candidates for political office under the organizations name. Through nomination, candidates are designated as belonging to a certain party. Interest groups do not have this process, which makes political parties unique.
2. Some believe that democracy should be defined in terms of political parties. To them, a nation-state requires at least two political parties that regularly contest elections.
C. Party Functions
1. Nominating candidates simplifies some election concerns. Without party nominations, many candidates would propose themselves, not based on a mass nomination. Those within a party can accurately judge a person’s credibility and strengths and then decide to nominate that person. Sometimes parties recruit candidates they think are more suitable for nomination.
2. Political parties structure the vote, by narrowing the number of candidates on the ballot to those who have a real chance of winning. Established parties form many followers who can secure a minimum vote for a party candidate. Having fewer political parties and fewer candidates makes voting for a candidate much easier.
3. Political Parties engender government programs and policies that their candidate will stand for in office. By doing this, voters do not have to know about a candidate’s issues or character. They need only know of the party’s policies and issues.
4. Political Parties also bridge the gap between government powers. Policy efforts can be joined by members of the same party within different branches of the government. When two branches differ, say the President and the House, members of the Republican party in both the House and the Republican President can work with common goals in mind.
D. A History of US Party Politics
1. The Democratic party has a strong claim to be the oldest party in existence, with the British Conservative Party, which was formed in 1832, coming close. The Republican party is still among the oldest in the world.
Chapter 8: Political Parties
I. The Preparty Period
A. The Preparty Period
1. The Constitution made no mention of political parties. Then, the only groups formed were called factions, and some proposed banning them to prevent their control of government. Supporters of British rule were called Tories, and opponents called Whigs. Then the federalists and antifederalists were formed when the Constitution was proposed.
2. An electoral college, mostly a handful of political leaders in the different states, met to decide on a presidential election. Caucuses, or secret group meetings, were actually the setting for George Washington’s election.
B. The First Party System: Federalists and Democratic Republicans
1. The reelection of George Washington saw the first skirmish between political parties. This was over Washington’s vice president John Adams, who was opposed by a Democratic Republican candidate. Then, when Adams and Jefferson went head to head in 1796, Adams won the electoral college majority.
2. But the constitution dictated that Jefferson, who received the other amount of votes, was to be Adams vice president. So the Constitution did not fathom that differences would exist between two candidates of political parties.
3. When party organization became clearer in 1800, both Democratic Republicans were chosen. But since they were tied, the House was given the task of choosing either Jefferson or Burr as president. The Twelfth Amendment prevented this from occurring again. The Federalist party soon dwindled, loosing the next four elections.
4. With widespread voting increasing after 1815, the role of parties in structuring the popular vote continued to develop. Citizens were soon allowed to choose the presidential electors, rather than Congress.
C. The Second Party System: democrats and Whigs
1. 1828 saw the creation of the modern Democratic party, which nominated Andrew Jackson to run for president. This election also saw a more than tripled increase in voters, due to relaxed voting requirements. But as the electorate grew, the few political leaders could no longer control the votes cast in the electoral college.
2. A new mechanism called a national convention was chosen to choose candidates for president and vice president and to to adopt a policy platform. The Anti-Masonic party, the first third party, called the first national convention in 1832.
3. Jackson was reelected and began exerting more control over the states, A new party, the Whigs, formed in response to this. The name implied that Jackson operated like King George in his rule over the colonies. The issues of slavery and sectionalism soon destroyed this new party, however.
D. The Current Party System: Democrats and Republicans
1. The Republican party was formed in opposition to extending slavery into Kansas and Nebraska. It entered the first presidential election in 1856, bringing candidate John Fremont, who carried 11 states. 1860 say Abraham Lincoln as the candidate, who defeated three other candidates to win the election.
2. A critical election is marked by sharp change in the existing patterns of party loyalty among groups of voters. The Democratic party had split into two groups, one still under the name Democrat. An electoral alignment, or change in voting patterns, like this, did not end with the election.
3. After the Civil War, no Republican candidate could win even one of the former Confederate states. In 1928, Republicans won five southern states. But until 1952 with Dwight Eisenhower, the Democrats dominated the South.
E. Eras of Party Dominance Since the Civil War
1. A two party system assumes a loyalty of voters to either of two parties, which forces independent candidates to form a third party. A majority party is one which is typically favored in a region. The other is called a minority party. Although the GOP candidates dominated elections from 1860 to 1894, its success was based on popular Civil War hero candidates. Seats in the House during this time were practically equal.
2. From 1896 to 1930, saw the true establishment of the Republican party as a majority party. With a depression and a Democratic President, Republicans nominated a sound candidate, while Democrats nominated an stark contrast. Their candidate pushed high inflation for paying off debts, the wrong direction for the country. Most people surged towards the Republicans, some permanently.
3. This Republican surge ended in 1932 with challenger FDR for the Presidential election. FDR won on a landslide. Democrats held the House and Senate mostly through 1994, and FDR was reelected three times. Republicans regained House control with the 104th Congress. The South has also cracked in its devotion to the Democratic party, beginning a period of electoral dealignment.
Chapter 8: Two Party System
I. The American Two-Party System
A. Minor Parties in America
1. Bolter parties, those which split off from major parties, are formed when leaders challenge their former parties. Examples include TDR’s Progressive party in 1912 and Wallace’s American Independent Party in 1968. Yet these Bolter parties have not affected the outcome of presidential elections.
2. Farmer-labor parties represent, obviously, farmers and workers who want a better share of society’s wealth. The People’s Party of 1892 is a good example. The Populist Party won 8.5 percent of the votes in1892, and became the first third party to win any electoral votes since 1860.
3. Parties of ideological protest go further in criticizing the established system, offering radical principles in place of traditional ones. Along with the Socialist Party, Libertarian Party stressed freedom over order and equality.
4. Single issue parties promote one principle. Prime examples are the Anti-Masonic Parties, the Free Soil Party, and the Prohibition Party. However, these parties only consistently acquire about one to two percent of the votes in an election. One thing all these minor parties have in common is their complaints or rejection of choices offered by the major parties
5. Minor parties do not succeed in getting votes, yet they advocate policy issues better. However, their policies lack public support, and therefore fail to get votes. Minor parties do allow citizens another choice for voicing their discontent with the system. More importantly, the total number of votes won by all minor parties should be watched.
B. Why a Two-Party System?
1. Why does the US have only two major parties? The idea of single winners chosen y a simple plurality of votes is known as majority representation. Legislature can also be chosen through proportional representation, where a party is awarded a number of seats in proportion to the number of votes they win. Because each party can win enough seats to wield an influence, multiple parties spring up.
2. But under plurality voting, only one candidate can win, forcing people to work within just two parties. Major parties are automatically given spots for candidates on ballots once they win a sizable vote percentage in an election.
3. Because the presidency is such a worthwhile political prize, groups are willing to pull together to mass a majority of votes across the nation. And because the Republican and Democratic parties have sustained and persisted for so long, political socialization allows them to go on doing so.
C. The Federal Basis of the Party System
1. But a loss in the presidency does not mean a total loss for a party. When Ronald Reagen swept the presidency in 1984, the Democratic Party kept control of the House. They also won 34 state governorships.
2. When the Republican Party continued to claim the Presidency with Bush, some could have said the Democrats were doomed to lose the presidency forever. But with the separation of state and national trends, the Democrats thrived instate elections.
D. Party Identification in America
1. Party identification signifies a voter’s sense of attachment to a party. But a devoted Democrat does not always vote for the Democratic candidate in an election. The number of Republicans and Democrats combined always exceeds the number of independents, while the Democrats always outnumber the Republicans. Yet shrinking in the Democratic party has left the three groups almost equal.
2. When voters repeatedly vote opposite their devoted party, they may consider switching parties. Such is the case with Southern Democrats. By 1996, the number of registered Republicans had seen substantial increases. People with lower SES levels are more likely to see themselves as Democrats.
3. Women, Jews, and blacks also tend to be more Democratic. The South remains the most heavily Democratic. Studies show that more than half of voters tend to adopt their parents party devotion. The youngest groups are more likely to be Independents. This is important because voters are more committed as they grow older and become interested in politics.
4. Some studies show that this erosion of Democrats may continue with the ratio of party identification among todays young voters. Even before an election is held, party identification tends to make the structure of an election predictable. Americans tend to pick their party and stay with it.
Chapter 8: Modern Part Evolution
I. Party Ideology and Organization
A. Differences in Party Ideology
1. The main differences between the two parties exist n the parties support of government programs. Democrats will spend more to advance social welfare, favoring equality. Republicans would rather invest in national defense. Ronal Reagen’s defense build up cost the nation more than one trillion dollars.
2. Party activists are an accurate judge of these differences. Only 16 percent Democrats consider themselves conservative, compared with 55 percent of Republicans. 3 percent of the Democratic convention delegates said they were conservative, compared with 79 percent Republican delegates.
3. Party platforms have been identified as important, because studies show that winning parties tend to accomplish more of their platform when in office. Sometimes the way platform issues are worded may win or lose a faction in a political party.
4. Differences in the platforms in 1996 became clear in their proposals. Democrats supported women’s’ choice between abortion and birth. They also wanted to ban assault weapons, while Republicans enforced the Constitutional right to bear arms. The two parties were also divided over gays in the military, funding for education, and medical care. These issues clearly delineate their stances on the values of freedom, order, and equality.
5. In ideology, the parties are sometimes claimed to be similar. Both support capitalism, Republicans regularly oppose increased government activity, and the differences between the two parties are similar in amount to other two party democracies. The two American parties are more conservative.
B. National Party Organization
1. Each party has four main organizational components nationally. First, the national convention, occurring every four years, determines party policy and designates a national committee. The national committee governs each party in between conventions, and is made up of chairman from the different states and territories. A chairperson is chosen by the presidential nominee, and then elected by the committee.
2. Party conferences, like the Republican caucus, are held by congressional members of the party, deal only with congressional matters, and do not relate to the national committee. Campaign committees raise funds to support its candidate in congressional elections. However, the national committee has no voice in congressional activity, but merely supports its candidate and staff.
3. The McGovern-Fraser commission formulated new candidate guidelines for the 1972 Democratic convention. To enforce this, the DNC threatened denial of seating to any state delegation who did not comply. After this, minorities, who were included in the guidelines, gained representation at the Democratic convention.
4. During this, the RNC made organizational reforms, and strengthened fund raising, research, and service roles. The Republicans made reforms which did things neither party had done before, but which other countries had been doing for years. Republican fund raising remains superior, and has raised money from a wider range of citizens.
C. State and Local Party Organizations
1. Party machines, like the democrats Tammany Hall in New York City, dominate local politics, and not always legally. But neither Republicans nor Democrats have an advantage in their local campaigns. The DNC and RNC have been contributing money in an opposite direction, to state parties.
D. Decentralized but Growing Stronger
1. American parties are getting stronger, but among the most decentralized in the world. Clinton was pushing for NAFTA, but was opposed by democratic majority leader Gephardt, and party whip Bonior. Although most Democrats rejected NAFTA, Republicans overwhelmingly favored it, and it was pushed through.
2. But both parties have had better funding and are more active in grass roots campaign activities. Leaders have become more involved in organizing and mobilizing voters.
II. The Model of Responsible Party Government
A. Responsible Party Government
1. Responsible party government dictates that parties present clear programs to voters. Voters should also choose candidates based on those programs, granted the winning party executes those programs once in office. The real problem is not the execution of programs, but whether or not voters judge candidates based on policies or not.
I. Political Parties and their Functions
A. Political Parties
1. Political parties play an odd role in American Democracy. Most Americans believe that the US would not have a democracy without the existence of parties. But a majority also believes they are not to be trusted. Americans see political parties as a necessary part of political life, but do not support their use.
B. What is a Political Party?
1. A political party sponsors candidates for political office under the organizations name. Through nomination, candidates are designated as belonging to a certain party. Interest groups do not have this process, which makes political parties unique.
2. Some believe that democracy should be defined in terms of political parties. To them, a nation-state requires at least two political parties that regularly contest elections.
C. Party Functions
1. Nominating candidates simplifies some election concerns. Without party nominations, many candidates would propose themselves, not based on a mass nomination. Those within a party can accurately judge a person’s credibility and strengths and then decide to nominate that person. Sometimes parties recruit candidates they think are more suitable for nomination.
2. Political parties structure the vote, by narrowing the number of candidates on the ballot to those who have a real chance of winning. Established parties form many followers who can secure a minimum vote for a party candidate. Having fewer political parties and fewer candidates makes voting for a candidate much easier.
3. Political Parties engender government programs and policies that their candidate will stand for in office. By doing this, voters do not have to know about a candidate’s issues or character. They need only know of the party’s policies and issues.
4. Political Parties also bridge the gap between government powers. Policy efforts can be joined by members of the same party within different branches of the government. When two branches differ, say the President and the House, members of the Republican party in both the House and the Republican President can work with common goals in mind.
D. A History of US Party Politics
1. The Democratic party has a strong claim to be the oldest party in existence, with the British Conservative Party, which was formed in 1832, coming close. The Republican party is still among the oldest in the world.
Chapter 8: Political Parties
I. The Preparty Period
A. The Preparty Period
1. The Constitution made no mention of political parties. Then, the only groups formed were called factions, and some proposed banning them to prevent their control of government. Supporters of British rule were called Tories, and opponents called Whigs. Then the federalists and antifederalists were formed when the Constitution was proposed.
2. An electoral college, mostly a handful of political leaders in the different states, met to decide on a presidential election. Caucuses, or secret group meetings, were actually the setting for George Washington’s election.
B. The First Party System: Federalists and Democratic Republicans
1. The reelection of George Washington saw the first skirmish between political parties. This was over Washington’s vice president John Adams, who was opposed by a Democratic Republican candidate. Then, when Adams and Jefferson went head to head in 1796, Adams won the electoral college majority.
2. But the constitution dictated that Jefferson, who received the other amount of votes, was to be Adams vice president. So the Constitution did not fathom that differences would exist between two candidates of political parties.
3. When party organization became clearer in 1800, both Democratic Republicans were chosen. But since they were tied, the House was given the task of choosing either Jefferson or Burr as president. The Twelfth Amendment prevented this from occurring again. The Federalist party soon dwindled, loosing the next four elections.
4. With widespread voting increasing after 1815, the role of parties in structuring the popular vote continued to develop. Citizens were soon allowed to choose the presidential electors, rather than Congress.
C. The Second Party System: democrats and Whigs
1. 1828 saw the creation of the modern Democratic party, which nominated Andrew Jackson to run for president. This election also saw a more than tripled increase in voters, due to relaxed voting requirements. But as the electorate grew, the few political leaders could no longer control the votes cast in the electoral college.
2. A new mechanism called a national convention was chosen to choose candidates for president and vice president and to to adopt a policy platform. The Anti-Masonic party, the first third party, called the first national convention in 1832.
3. Jackson was reelected and began exerting more control over the states, A new party, the Whigs, formed in response to this. The name implied that Jackson operated like King George in his rule over the colonies. The issues of slavery and sectionalism soon destroyed this new party, however.
D. The Current Party System: Democrats and Republicans
1. The Republican party was formed in opposition to extending slavery into Kansas and Nebraska. It entered the first presidential election in 1856, bringing candidate John Fremont, who carried 11 states. 1860 say Abraham Lincoln as the candidate, who defeated three other candidates to win the election.
2. A critical election is marked by sharp change in the existing patterns of party loyalty among groups of voters. The Democratic party had split into two groups, one still under the name Democrat. An electoral alignment, or change in voting patterns, like this, did not end with the election.
3. After the Civil War, no Republican candidate could win even one of the former Confederate states. In 1928, Republicans won five southern states. But until 1952 with Dwight Eisenhower, the Democrats dominated the South.
E. Eras of Party Dominance Since the Civil War
1. A two party system assumes a loyalty of voters to either of two parties, which forces independent candidates to form a third party. A majority party is one which is typically favored in a region. The other is called a minority party. Although the GOP candidates dominated elections from 1860 to 1894, its success was based on popular Civil War hero candidates. Seats in the House during this time were practically equal.
2. From 1896 to 1930, saw the true establishment of the Republican party as a majority party. With a depression and a Democratic President, Republicans nominated a sound candidate, while Democrats nominated an stark contrast. Their candidate pushed high inflation for paying off debts, the wrong direction for the country. Most people surged towards the Republicans, some permanently.
3. This Republican surge ended in 1932 with challenger FDR for the Presidential election. FDR won on a landslide. Democrats held the House and Senate mostly through 1994, and FDR was reelected three times. Republicans regained House control with the 104th Congress. The South has also cracked in its devotion to the Democratic party, beginning a period of electoral dealignment.
Chapter 8: Two Party System
I. The American Two-Party System
A. Minor Parties in America
1. Bolter parties, those which split off from major parties, are formed when leaders challenge their former parties. Examples include TDR’s Progressive party in 1912 and Wallace’s American Independent Party in 1968. Yet these Bolter parties have not affected the outcome of presidential elections.
2. Farmer-labor parties represent, obviously, farmers and workers who want a better share of society’s wealth. The People’s Party of 1892 is a good example. The Populist Party won 8.5 percent of the votes in1892, and became the first third party to win any electoral votes since 1860.
3. Parties of ideological protest go further in criticizing the established system, offering radical principles in place of traditional ones. Along with the Socialist Party, Libertarian Party stressed freedom over order and equality.
4. Single issue parties promote one principle. Prime examples are the Anti-Masonic Parties, the Free Soil Party, and the Prohibition Party. However, these parties only consistently acquire about one to two percent of the votes in an election. One thing all these minor parties have in common is their complaints or rejection of choices offered by the major parties
5. Minor parties do not succeed in getting votes, yet they advocate policy issues better. However, their policies lack public support, and therefore fail to get votes. Minor parties do allow citizens another choice for voicing their discontent with the system. More importantly, the total number of votes won by all minor parties should be watched.
B. Why a Two-Party System?
1. Why does the US have only two major parties? The idea of single winners chosen y a simple plurality of votes is known as majority representation. Legislature can also be chosen through proportional representation, where a party is awarded a number of seats in proportion to the number of votes they win. Because each party can win enough seats to wield an influence, multiple parties spring up.
2. But under plurality voting, only one candidate can win, forcing people to work within just two parties. Major parties are automatically given spots for candidates on ballots once they win a sizable vote percentage in an election.
3. Because the presidency is such a worthwhile political prize, groups are willing to pull together to mass a majority of votes across the nation. And because the Republican and Democratic parties have sustained and persisted for so long, political socialization allows them to go on doing so.
C. The Federal Basis of the Party System
1. But a loss in the presidency does not mean a total loss for a party. When Ronald Reagen swept the presidency in 1984, the Democratic Party kept control of the House. They also won 34 state governorships.
2. When the Republican Party continued to claim the Presidency with Bush, some could have said the Democrats were doomed to lose the presidency forever. But with the separation of state and national trends, the Democrats thrived instate elections.
D. Party Identification in America
1. Party identification signifies a voter’s sense of attachment to a party. But a devoted Democrat does not always vote for the Democratic candidate in an election. The number of Republicans and Democrats combined always exceeds the number of independents, while the Democrats always outnumber the Republicans. Yet shrinking in the Democratic party has left the three groups almost equal.
2. When voters repeatedly vote opposite their devoted party, they may consider switching parties. Such is the case with Southern Democrats. By 1996, the number of registered Republicans had seen substantial increases. People with lower SES levels are more likely to see themselves as Democrats.
3. Women, Jews, and blacks also tend to be more Democratic. The South remains the most heavily Democratic. Studies show that more than half of voters tend to adopt their parents party devotion. The youngest groups are more likely to be Independents. This is important because voters are more committed as they grow older and become interested in politics.
4. Some studies show that this erosion of Democrats may continue with the ratio of party identification among todays young voters. Even before an election is held, party identification tends to make the structure of an election predictable. Americans tend to pick their party and stay with it.
Chapter 8: Modern Part Evolution
I. Party Ideology and Organization
A. Differences in Party Ideology
1. The main differences between the two parties exist n the parties support of government programs. Democrats will spend more to advance social welfare, favoring equality. Republicans would rather invest in national defense. Ronal Reagen’s defense build up cost the nation more than one trillion dollars.
2. Party activists are an accurate judge of these differences. Only 16 percent Democrats consider themselves conservative, compared with 55 percent of Republicans. 3 percent of the Democratic convention delegates said they were conservative, compared with 79 percent Republican delegates.
3. Party platforms have been identified as important, because studies show that winning parties tend to accomplish more of their platform when in office. Sometimes the way platform issues are worded may win or lose a faction in a political party.
4. Differences in the platforms in 1996 became clear in their proposals. Democrats supported women’s’ choice between abortion and birth. They also wanted to ban assault weapons, while Republicans enforced the Constitutional right to bear arms. The two parties were also divided over gays in the military, funding for education, and medical care. These issues clearly delineate their stances on the values of freedom, order, and equality.
5. In ideology, the parties are sometimes claimed to be similar. Both support capitalism, Republicans regularly oppose increased government activity, and the differences between the two parties are similar in amount to other two party democracies. The two American parties are more conservative.
B. National Party Organization
1. Each party has four main organizational components nationally. First, the national convention, occurring every four years, determines party policy and designates a national committee. The national committee governs each party in between conventions, and is made up of chairman from the different states and territories. A chairperson is chosen by the presidential nominee, and then elected by the committee.
2. Party conferences, like the Republican caucus, are held by congressional members of the party, deal only with congressional matters, and do not relate to the national committee. Campaign committees raise funds to support its candidate in congressional elections. However, the national committee has no voice in congressional activity, but merely supports its candidate and staff.
3. The McGovern-Fraser commission formulated new candidate guidelines for the 1972 Democratic convention. To enforce this, the DNC threatened denial of seating to any state delegation who did not comply. After this, minorities, who were included in the guidelines, gained representation at the Democratic convention.
4. During this, the RNC made organizational reforms, and strengthened fund raising, research, and service roles. The Republicans made reforms which did things neither party had done before, but which other countries had been doing for years. Republican fund raising remains superior, and has raised money from a wider range of citizens.
C. State and Local Party Organizations
1. Party machines, like the democrats Tammany Hall in New York City, dominate local politics, and not always legally. But neither Republicans nor Democrats have an advantage in their local campaigns. The DNC and RNC have been contributing money in an opposite direction, to state parties.
D. Decentralized but Growing Stronger
1. American parties are getting stronger, but among the most decentralized in the world. Clinton was pushing for NAFTA, but was opposed by democratic majority leader Gephardt, and party whip Bonior. Although most Democrats rejected NAFTA, Republicans overwhelmingly favored it, and it was pushed through.
2. But both parties have had better funding and are more active in grass roots campaign activities. Leaders have become more involved in organizing and mobilizing voters.
II. The Model of Responsible Party Government
A. Responsible Party Government
1. Responsible party government dictates that parties present clear programs to voters. Voters should also choose candidates based on those programs, granted the winning party executes those programs once in office. The real problem is not the execution of programs, but whether or not voters judge candidates based on policies or not.
Thursday, November 16, 2006
ch.7
Chapter 7: Political Participation
I. Democracy and Political Participation
A. Participation
1. If democracy is rule by the people, how much is required of the people? Democracy can not be declared if citizens do not participate directly. Yet that is a hardcore definition. A more practical definition provides that the people can participate indirectly, through elected representatives. Thus elections are needed to support a democracy.
2. But having elections does not mean a democracy is in place. Both democratic models enforce voting, but this is not the only way of actively participating in democracy. Other forms of participation include interest groups and campaigns for political parties.
3. But some forms of participation are not always conventional, or acceptable to society. Conventional methods of participation are routine, and use institutions of government. Unconventional methods are uncommon and challenge or defy government institutions, and sometimes the dominant culture.
4. Political demonstrations can be conventional, like protesting with signs, or unconventional, like preventing people from entering a building. Some powerless groups use unconventional participation to gain political benefits.
II. Unconventional Participation
A. Unconventional
1. During the Civil Rights movement, a group of protesters in Alabama tried to march 50 miles to the state capitol. This action challenged the people who prevented blacks from voting. By protesting in an unconventional manner, the marchers dramatized their inability to vote, to participate conventionally in politics and government.
2. Yet this march posed no threat, and put governor George Wallace’s decision in a bad light. Yet when the march ended in violence, the nation awakened to the seriousness of civil rights in the South.
III. Support for Unconventional Participation
A. Support
1. More is known about conventional practices, since they occur more frequently and are easier to collect data on. Most who report on conventional methods specifically exclude studies on unconventional methods. When a survey asked respondents which methods they approved of, only one was clear. Petitions were approved of because they are frequently used.
2. Two other fairly identified choices were demonstrations and boycotts. Although only about 20 percent had participated in one, almost half said they would do it if the occasion arose. Yet the line was drawn when strikes and occupying buildings were chosen. A super majority says they would never participate in such a clearly unconventional method.
B. Effectiveness of Unconventional Participation
1. But does this method work? Of course. Antiwar protests in the 60s and 70s led to a lower draft age and lowered voting age. Civil Rights workers used direct action to challenge local businesses and government concerning specific cases of discrimination.
2. Minorities also used unconventional methods to push through more legislation that protected them form discrimination in some way. Black protest activity has heightened welfare support for blacks in the South. Twenty five years after Bloody Sunday, peaceful marchers in Selma received the keys to the city form the same mayor.
3. Yet unconventional methods are not to be undertaken lightly. They require special commitment. A group needs to be aware of its objectives, direction, and position. Studies show that an increased awareness of blacks has increased participation of poor blacks over poor whites.
C. Unconventional Participation in America
1. Chances of direct participation in the US are as good as in Europe. They are even more likely to engage in political protests than in other democratic countries. Yet the use of unconventional methods of participation n government may be a bad sign for our democratic government.
Chapter 7: Political Participation
I. Conventional Participation
A. Behaviors
1. A practical method of testing democracy is to see whether or not citizens can act in government through institutions. Citizens do not need to risk lives just to participate in government, because the objective of government is to make political participation conventional.
2. Members of a group meeting to promote their cause, or dramatize it, are participating conventionally. Yet when violence occurs between two groups or among a group, it becomes unconventional. Conventional behavior is either supportive of government, or in favor of changing them.
B. Supportive Behavior
1. These behaviors express allegiance to government and country. This requires little effort and courage. Voting is a good example. Greater initiative is demanded of people who are serving as election judges and such things.
2. Patriotism can breed unconventional actions. People who want to protect the nation sometimes break up groups or meetings that promote anti-American ideas. Patriots who take their role seriously often pose their own threat.
C. Influencing Behavior
1. Influencing behaviors do just that, influence the government, seeking benefits from government, or with broad policy objectives. Most actions that do not require much initiative often are used for particular benefits for people, their families, or close friends.
2. Depending on which model of democracy is most applicable, these actions may be viewed differently. Small groups and individuals should be allowed to make government address their needs, according to the pluralist model.
3. Yet the government should not do what the majority does not want, according to the majoritarian model. Most people expect local government, not national, to solve a wide range of problems. Citizens can mobilize against a project, or contribute money to a campaign, in order to have an influence.
4. Approaching government for personal benefits is consistent with democratic theory. Particularized interests are a detriment to the majority, and is used more by citizens who are more knowledgeable. Voting to influence policy is much different. This is the ideal form of political participation.
5. Other high initiative forms of participation include running for political offices, writing letters on legislation and to public officials, and working on party campaigns. Yet most do not realize that the courts can be used to participate. Class action suits can represent numerous people in the same situation, but court participation is usually out of reach by individuals. Rather, organized groups regularly use the courts to participate.
6. Citizens may also participate in national politics, by listening and attending Congressional meetings, and by viewing government documents.
D. Conventional Participation in America
1. the most common form of participation in a survey of five countries was voting. Yet Americans are less likely to cast a vote than other countries. Yet all other categories of conventional and unconventional forms of participation are used more regularly, except voting.
Chapter 7: Political Participation
I. Participating Through Voting
A. Elections
1. Elections allow mass participation in democratic government according to the three principles or procedural democracy: electoral rules tell who is allowed to vote, how much each vote counts, and how many votes are needed to win.
2. Suffrage and franchise allow individuals who have little power to join and wield a great power. The act of elections is not important. But the rules of voting are important, and according to democracy, everyone should be able to vote. With a few exceptions of course.
B. Expansion of Suffrage
1. Since the framers of the Constitution could not decide how to deem franchise, they left it to the states. At first, the states had requirements such as land ownership. After 1800, these restrictions were lifted.
2. As land was gained in the West, these requirements were easier to fulfill, but were soon eliminated. Now all white males could vote. Expansion of suffrage beyond that took a little longer.
C. The Enfranchisement of Blacks
1. Even though the fifteenth amendment secured lifted restrictions on voting for blacks, they were still restricted in many ways. New poll taxes and literacy tests were aimed mainly at blacks. And the amendment did not say anything about private elections, so primaries became off limits for blacks. Finally, the threat of violence kept them away from the polls.
2. But suffrage did arrive in two parts. First, the courts decided in Smith v. Allright that primaries were open to all races, because they were a part of electing public officials. Then in the Voting Rights Act, discriminatory tests against blacks were suspended. State poll taxes soon when out afterwards.
D. Enfranchisement of Women
1. In the 1880’s Wyoming legalized women voting rights, a major victory for suffragette. Colorado followed soon, and suffragettes became more active. The next twelve states to follow were mostly in the West, where women broke from traditional roles. In 1919, Congress finally passed the nineteenth amendment, allowing all women to vote.
E. Evaluating the Expansion of Suffrage in America
1. The last major step in enfranchisement was lowering the voting age to eighteen in 1971. Through demonstrations and a civil war, court actions and legislation, voting was extended from white males to all people over eighteen. But the US looks pretty democratic, compared to other nations. Nineteen of twenty seven countries that allow free elections have a minimum voting age of eighteen, while seven others have higher requirements.
F. Voting on Policies
1. The Progressive Era introduced trust in the goodness of individuals and distrusted interest groups. It introduced the direct primary, where voters chose state candidates for a general election. Also, the use of the masses, with mechanisms like referendum and initiatives, was inspired by the Progressive Era
2. One study estimates 17000 referenda since 1898. Although some proposals to limit congressional terms were passed, The State court ruled later that these were unconstitutional, and were thus void in all the states that had adopted the legislation.
3. Referendum can be used to mount a campaign against a cause or idea. In 1990, Big Green was faced with a ten billion dollar campaign created by a referendum and petitions. Special interest groups have therefore become involved. Some studies showed that these mechanisms worked better at state and local levels than national levels.
4. Yet the US does not allow national referendum anyway. Citizens can use these mechanisms to influence power over the government and policies, but do they always improve policies?
G. Voting for Candidates
1. Voting allows voters to both pick a candidate they think best serves their interests, and to reverse a mistake and vote for the right official, in hopes of removing a bad candidate. In national politics, voters only decide on president and vice president, leaving other officials up to the President.
2. But in state and local elections, more variety is demanded. All types of officials are elected. At the local level alone, voters elect 600 of 15300 school boards in the nation. If more elections means better elections, than the US has the best elections around.
3. But even though numerous elections are held, they mean nothing without voter turnout. Every aspect of political participation is higher than other countries except in voting. If no voter turnout occurs, no amount of elections would make a difference.
Chapter 7: Political Participation
I. Explaining Political Participation
A. Patterns of Participation over Time
1. Studies show that participation has remained pretty steady over the years, with few exceptions. Ross Perot’s candidacy added a new element to the presidential election in 1992, spurring more participation. But not all participation is steady. Voting is the one area which shows a decreasing trend. And voting turnout is basically less when compared with other countries.
B. The Standard Socioeconomic Explanation
1. People with higher SES are more likely to participate in politics. This is due basically to a higher level of education, and awareness of the workings of politics. Yet conventional participation is measured more than unconventional participation. The relationship between socioeconomic status and conventional political participation is called the standard socioeconomic model of participation.
2. Unconventional participation is different. This is more related to youth and low SES levels. this is true in other countries, but studies in the US have shown the opposite. SES can of course not be the only guide to all the differences between political participation patterns.
3. Two other factors appear in participation patterns, race and gender. Although women have in the past showed lower participation rates, these differences have evened out. Blacks have also shown lower participation rates, but have again evened out when SES is taken into account. Out of all factors, education remains the most important. Those with more education show higher participation rates.
C. Low Voter Turnout in America
1. A five year period before 1972 showed a sharp decrease in voter turnout. But when the 26th amendment was passed, the electorate was increased, showing a lower rate of turnout. But why has voting continued to decrease while education increases? One theory is that government is not responsive enough, and therefore voting does not do much good.
2. Lower turnout in comparison with other countries may have some explanations. Voting is a two step process, where as in other counties registration is a burden more on the government. US citizens find it a nuisance to register and vote separately. A lack of political parties to motivate voters may also be a reason.
3. More aggressive campaigns tend to mobilize voters more effectively. Also, having to learn about the scores of candidates on a ballot requires much initiative, more than the actual voting process.
II. Participation and Freedom, Equality, and Order
A. Participation and Freedom
1. Freedom to participate warrants that voters should be able to use all assets to influence government. They should be able to participate as much and as often as they want. Obstacles to voting should therefore ideally be removed.
B. Participation and Equality
1. Each citizens ability to participate should be equal under this relationship. Elections are ideally disposed to this end. Rules for counting votes and ballot diffuse any differences between voters and resources. Individuals can also combine their vote to wield political power.
C. Participation and Order
1. Some types of change in participation promote order, some do not. Unconventional participation in particular can cause disorder. Take for example student unrest on college campuses during the Vietnam War. The 26th amendment allowed those students to actively participate by voting in government. The government was highly responsive
2. Ironically, those students did not demand voting rights. Some believe Congress passed the legislation to enfranchise youths and involve them in politics, thereby curbing disorder.
III. Participation and the Models of Democracy
A. Participation and Majoritarianism
1. Majoritarianism relies heavily on counting votes, and is therefore biased toward equality in political participation. A class bias can easily exist due to socioeconomic status patterns. No campaign can alter the trend of well educated citizens more likely to vote. This focus also limits the means which are viewed as acceptable for participation, by heavily relying on voting, and mass participation.
B. Participation and Pluralism
1. A decentralized government allows those who need governments help with problems a better choice. Means of participation are greatly increased. Multiple points of access are conducive to this purpose. pluralism allows citizens to be treated as individuals and to influence policy making in special circumstances.
I. Democracy and Political Participation
A. Participation
1. If democracy is rule by the people, how much is required of the people? Democracy can not be declared if citizens do not participate directly. Yet that is a hardcore definition. A more practical definition provides that the people can participate indirectly, through elected representatives. Thus elections are needed to support a democracy.
2. But having elections does not mean a democracy is in place. Both democratic models enforce voting, but this is not the only way of actively participating in democracy. Other forms of participation include interest groups and campaigns for political parties.
3. But some forms of participation are not always conventional, or acceptable to society. Conventional methods of participation are routine, and use institutions of government. Unconventional methods are uncommon and challenge or defy government institutions, and sometimes the dominant culture.
4. Political demonstrations can be conventional, like protesting with signs, or unconventional, like preventing people from entering a building. Some powerless groups use unconventional participation to gain political benefits.
II. Unconventional Participation
A. Unconventional
1. During the Civil Rights movement, a group of protesters in Alabama tried to march 50 miles to the state capitol. This action challenged the people who prevented blacks from voting. By protesting in an unconventional manner, the marchers dramatized their inability to vote, to participate conventionally in politics and government.
2. Yet this march posed no threat, and put governor George Wallace’s decision in a bad light. Yet when the march ended in violence, the nation awakened to the seriousness of civil rights in the South.
III. Support for Unconventional Participation
A. Support
1. More is known about conventional practices, since they occur more frequently and are easier to collect data on. Most who report on conventional methods specifically exclude studies on unconventional methods. When a survey asked respondents which methods they approved of, only one was clear. Petitions were approved of because they are frequently used.
2. Two other fairly identified choices were demonstrations and boycotts. Although only about 20 percent had participated in one, almost half said they would do it if the occasion arose. Yet the line was drawn when strikes and occupying buildings were chosen. A super majority says they would never participate in such a clearly unconventional method.
B. Effectiveness of Unconventional Participation
1. But does this method work? Of course. Antiwar protests in the 60s and 70s led to a lower draft age and lowered voting age. Civil Rights workers used direct action to challenge local businesses and government concerning specific cases of discrimination.
2. Minorities also used unconventional methods to push through more legislation that protected them form discrimination in some way. Black protest activity has heightened welfare support for blacks in the South. Twenty five years after Bloody Sunday, peaceful marchers in Selma received the keys to the city form the same mayor.
3. Yet unconventional methods are not to be undertaken lightly. They require special commitment. A group needs to be aware of its objectives, direction, and position. Studies show that an increased awareness of blacks has increased participation of poor blacks over poor whites.
C. Unconventional Participation in America
1. Chances of direct participation in the US are as good as in Europe. They are even more likely to engage in political protests than in other democratic countries. Yet the use of unconventional methods of participation n government may be a bad sign for our democratic government.
Chapter 7: Political Participation
I. Conventional Participation
A. Behaviors
1. A practical method of testing democracy is to see whether or not citizens can act in government through institutions. Citizens do not need to risk lives just to participate in government, because the objective of government is to make political participation conventional.
2. Members of a group meeting to promote their cause, or dramatize it, are participating conventionally. Yet when violence occurs between two groups or among a group, it becomes unconventional. Conventional behavior is either supportive of government, or in favor of changing them.
B. Supportive Behavior
1. These behaviors express allegiance to government and country. This requires little effort and courage. Voting is a good example. Greater initiative is demanded of people who are serving as election judges and such things.
2. Patriotism can breed unconventional actions. People who want to protect the nation sometimes break up groups or meetings that promote anti-American ideas. Patriots who take their role seriously often pose their own threat.
C. Influencing Behavior
1. Influencing behaviors do just that, influence the government, seeking benefits from government, or with broad policy objectives. Most actions that do not require much initiative often are used for particular benefits for people, their families, or close friends.
2. Depending on which model of democracy is most applicable, these actions may be viewed differently. Small groups and individuals should be allowed to make government address their needs, according to the pluralist model.
3. Yet the government should not do what the majority does not want, according to the majoritarian model. Most people expect local government, not national, to solve a wide range of problems. Citizens can mobilize against a project, or contribute money to a campaign, in order to have an influence.
4. Approaching government for personal benefits is consistent with democratic theory. Particularized interests are a detriment to the majority, and is used more by citizens who are more knowledgeable. Voting to influence policy is much different. This is the ideal form of political participation.
5. Other high initiative forms of participation include running for political offices, writing letters on legislation and to public officials, and working on party campaigns. Yet most do not realize that the courts can be used to participate. Class action suits can represent numerous people in the same situation, but court participation is usually out of reach by individuals. Rather, organized groups regularly use the courts to participate.
6. Citizens may also participate in national politics, by listening and attending Congressional meetings, and by viewing government documents.
D. Conventional Participation in America
1. the most common form of participation in a survey of five countries was voting. Yet Americans are less likely to cast a vote than other countries. Yet all other categories of conventional and unconventional forms of participation are used more regularly, except voting.
Chapter 7: Political Participation
I. Participating Through Voting
A. Elections
1. Elections allow mass participation in democratic government according to the three principles or procedural democracy: electoral rules tell who is allowed to vote, how much each vote counts, and how many votes are needed to win.
2. Suffrage and franchise allow individuals who have little power to join and wield a great power. The act of elections is not important. But the rules of voting are important, and according to democracy, everyone should be able to vote. With a few exceptions of course.
B. Expansion of Suffrage
1. Since the framers of the Constitution could not decide how to deem franchise, they left it to the states. At first, the states had requirements such as land ownership. After 1800, these restrictions were lifted.
2. As land was gained in the West, these requirements were easier to fulfill, but were soon eliminated. Now all white males could vote. Expansion of suffrage beyond that took a little longer.
C. The Enfranchisement of Blacks
1. Even though the fifteenth amendment secured lifted restrictions on voting for blacks, they were still restricted in many ways. New poll taxes and literacy tests were aimed mainly at blacks. And the amendment did not say anything about private elections, so primaries became off limits for blacks. Finally, the threat of violence kept them away from the polls.
2. But suffrage did arrive in two parts. First, the courts decided in Smith v. Allright that primaries were open to all races, because they were a part of electing public officials. Then in the Voting Rights Act, discriminatory tests against blacks were suspended. State poll taxes soon when out afterwards.
D. Enfranchisement of Women
1. In the 1880’s Wyoming legalized women voting rights, a major victory for suffragette. Colorado followed soon, and suffragettes became more active. The next twelve states to follow were mostly in the West, where women broke from traditional roles. In 1919, Congress finally passed the nineteenth amendment, allowing all women to vote.
E. Evaluating the Expansion of Suffrage in America
1. The last major step in enfranchisement was lowering the voting age to eighteen in 1971. Through demonstrations and a civil war, court actions and legislation, voting was extended from white males to all people over eighteen. But the US looks pretty democratic, compared to other nations. Nineteen of twenty seven countries that allow free elections have a minimum voting age of eighteen, while seven others have higher requirements.
F. Voting on Policies
1. The Progressive Era introduced trust in the goodness of individuals and distrusted interest groups. It introduced the direct primary, where voters chose state candidates for a general election. Also, the use of the masses, with mechanisms like referendum and initiatives, was inspired by the Progressive Era
2. One study estimates 17000 referenda since 1898. Although some proposals to limit congressional terms were passed, The State court ruled later that these were unconstitutional, and were thus void in all the states that had adopted the legislation.
3. Referendum can be used to mount a campaign against a cause or idea. In 1990, Big Green was faced with a ten billion dollar campaign created by a referendum and petitions. Special interest groups have therefore become involved. Some studies showed that these mechanisms worked better at state and local levels than national levels.
4. Yet the US does not allow national referendum anyway. Citizens can use these mechanisms to influence power over the government and policies, but do they always improve policies?
G. Voting for Candidates
1. Voting allows voters to both pick a candidate they think best serves their interests, and to reverse a mistake and vote for the right official, in hopes of removing a bad candidate. In national politics, voters only decide on president and vice president, leaving other officials up to the President.
2. But in state and local elections, more variety is demanded. All types of officials are elected. At the local level alone, voters elect 600 of 15300 school boards in the nation. If more elections means better elections, than the US has the best elections around.
3. But even though numerous elections are held, they mean nothing without voter turnout. Every aspect of political participation is higher than other countries except in voting. If no voter turnout occurs, no amount of elections would make a difference.
Chapter 7: Political Participation
I. Explaining Political Participation
A. Patterns of Participation over Time
1. Studies show that participation has remained pretty steady over the years, with few exceptions. Ross Perot’s candidacy added a new element to the presidential election in 1992, spurring more participation. But not all participation is steady. Voting is the one area which shows a decreasing trend. And voting turnout is basically less when compared with other countries.
B. The Standard Socioeconomic Explanation
1. People with higher SES are more likely to participate in politics. This is due basically to a higher level of education, and awareness of the workings of politics. Yet conventional participation is measured more than unconventional participation. The relationship between socioeconomic status and conventional political participation is called the standard socioeconomic model of participation.
2. Unconventional participation is different. This is more related to youth and low SES levels. this is true in other countries, but studies in the US have shown the opposite. SES can of course not be the only guide to all the differences between political participation patterns.
3. Two other factors appear in participation patterns, race and gender. Although women have in the past showed lower participation rates, these differences have evened out. Blacks have also shown lower participation rates, but have again evened out when SES is taken into account. Out of all factors, education remains the most important. Those with more education show higher participation rates.
C. Low Voter Turnout in America
1. A five year period before 1972 showed a sharp decrease in voter turnout. But when the 26th amendment was passed, the electorate was increased, showing a lower rate of turnout. But why has voting continued to decrease while education increases? One theory is that government is not responsive enough, and therefore voting does not do much good.
2. Lower turnout in comparison with other countries may have some explanations. Voting is a two step process, where as in other counties registration is a burden more on the government. US citizens find it a nuisance to register and vote separately. A lack of political parties to motivate voters may also be a reason.
3. More aggressive campaigns tend to mobilize voters more effectively. Also, having to learn about the scores of candidates on a ballot requires much initiative, more than the actual voting process.
II. Participation and Freedom, Equality, and Order
A. Participation and Freedom
1. Freedom to participate warrants that voters should be able to use all assets to influence government. They should be able to participate as much and as often as they want. Obstacles to voting should therefore ideally be removed.
B. Participation and Equality
1. Each citizens ability to participate should be equal under this relationship. Elections are ideally disposed to this end. Rules for counting votes and ballot diffuse any differences between voters and resources. Individuals can also combine their vote to wield political power.
C. Participation and Order
1. Some types of change in participation promote order, some do not. Unconventional participation in particular can cause disorder. Take for example student unrest on college campuses during the Vietnam War. The 26th amendment allowed those students to actively participate by voting in government. The government was highly responsive
2. Ironically, those students did not demand voting rights. Some believe Congress passed the legislation to enfranchise youths and involve them in politics, thereby curbing disorder.
III. Participation and the Models of Democracy
A. Participation and Majoritarianism
1. Majoritarianism relies heavily on counting votes, and is therefore biased toward equality in political participation. A class bias can easily exist due to socioeconomic status patterns. No campaign can alter the trend of well educated citizens more likely to vote. This focus also limits the means which are viewed as acceptable for participation, by heavily relying on voting, and mass participation.
B. Participation and Pluralism
1. A decentralized government allows those who need governments help with problems a better choice. Means of participation are greatly increased. Multiple points of access are conducive to this purpose. pluralism allows citizens to be treated as individuals and to influence policy making in special circumstances.
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