ch.7

Chapter 7: Political Participation


I. Democracy and Political Participation

A. Participation
1. If democracy is rule by the people, how much is required of the people? Democracy can not be declared if citizens do not participate directly. Yet that is a hardcore definition. A more practical definition provides that the people can participate indirectly, through elected representatives. Thus elections are needed to support a democracy.
2. But having elections does not mean a democracy is in place. Both democratic models enforce voting, but this is not the only way of actively participating in democracy. Other forms of participation include interest groups and campaigns for political parties.
3. But some forms of participation are not always conventional, or acceptable to society. Conventional methods of participation are routine, and use institutions of government. Unconventional methods are uncommon and challenge or defy government institutions, and sometimes the dominant culture.
4. Political demonstrations can be conventional, like protesting with signs, or unconventional, like preventing people from entering a building. Some powerless groups use unconventional participation to gain political benefits.

II. Unconventional Participation

A. Unconventional
1. During the Civil Rights movement, a group of protesters in Alabama tried to march 50 miles to the state capitol. This action challenged the people who prevented blacks from voting. By protesting in an unconventional manner, the marchers dramatized their inability to vote, to participate conventionally in politics and government.
2. Yet this march posed no threat, and put governor George Wallace’s decision in a bad light. Yet when the march ended in violence, the nation awakened to the seriousness of civil rights in the South.

III. Support for Unconventional Participation

A. Support
1. More is known about conventional practices, since they occur more frequently and are easier to collect data on. Most who report on conventional methods specifically exclude studies on unconventional methods. When a survey asked respondents which methods they approved of, only one was clear. Petitions were approved of because they are frequently used.
2. Two other fairly identified choices were demonstrations and boycotts. Although only about 20 percent had participated in one, almost half said they would do it if the occasion arose. Yet the line was drawn when strikes and occupying buildings were chosen. A super majority says they would never participate in such a clearly unconventional method.

B. Effectiveness of Unconventional Participation
1. But does this method work? Of course. Antiwar protests in the 60s and 70s led to a lower draft age and lowered voting age. Civil Rights workers used direct action to challenge local businesses and government concerning specific cases of discrimination.
2. Minorities also used unconventional methods to push through more legislation that protected them form discrimination in some way. Black protest activity has heightened welfare support for blacks in the South. Twenty five years after Bloody Sunday, peaceful marchers in Selma received the keys to the city form the same mayor.
3. Yet unconventional methods are not to be undertaken lightly. They require special commitment. A group needs to be aware of its objectives, direction, and position. Studies show that an increased awareness of blacks has increased participation of poor blacks over poor whites.

C. Unconventional Participation in America
1. Chances of direct participation in the US are as good as in Europe. They are even more likely to engage in political protests than in other democratic countries. Yet the use of unconventional methods of participation n government may be a bad sign for our democratic government.


Chapter 7: Political Participation


I. Conventional Participation

A. Behaviors
1. A practical method of testing democracy is to see whether or not citizens can act in government through institutions. Citizens do not need to risk lives just to participate in government, because the objective of government is to make political participation conventional.
2. Members of a group meeting to promote their cause, or dramatize it, are participating conventionally. Yet when violence occurs between two groups or among a group, it becomes unconventional. Conventional behavior is either supportive of government, or in favor of changing them.

B. Supportive Behavior
1. These behaviors express allegiance to government and country. This requires little effort and courage. Voting is a good example. Greater initiative is demanded of people who are serving as election judges and such things.
2. Patriotism can breed unconventional actions. People who want to protect the nation sometimes break up groups or meetings that promote anti-American ideas. Patriots who take their role seriously often pose their own threat.

C. Influencing Behavior
1. Influencing behaviors do just that, influence the government, seeking benefits from government, or with broad policy objectives. Most actions that do not require much initiative often are used for particular benefits for people, their families, or close friends.
2. Depending on which model of democracy is most applicable, these actions may be viewed differently. Small groups and individuals should be allowed to make government address their needs, according to the pluralist model.
3. Yet the government should not do what the majority does not want, according to the majoritarian model. Most people expect local government, not national, to solve a wide range of problems. Citizens can mobilize against a project, or contribute money to a campaign, in order to have an influence.
4. Approaching government for personal benefits is consistent with democratic theory. Particularized interests are a detriment to the majority, and is used more by citizens who are more knowledgeable. Voting to influence policy is much different. This is the ideal form of political participation.
5. Other high initiative forms of participation include running for political offices, writing letters on legislation and to public officials, and working on party campaigns. Yet most do not realize that the courts can be used to participate. Class action suits can represent numerous people in the same situation, but court participation is usually out of reach by individuals. Rather, organized groups regularly use the courts to participate.
6. Citizens may also participate in national politics, by listening and attending Congressional meetings, and by viewing government documents.

D. Conventional Participation in America
1. the most common form of participation in a survey of five countries was voting. Yet Americans are less likely to cast a vote than other countries. Yet all other categories of conventional and unconventional forms of participation are used more regularly, except voting.




Chapter 7: Political Participation


I. Participating Through Voting

A. Elections
1. Elections allow mass participation in democratic government according to the three principles or procedural democracy: electoral rules tell who is allowed to vote, how much each vote counts, and how many votes are needed to win.
2. Suffrage and franchise allow individuals who have little power to join and wield a great power. The act of elections is not important. But the rules of voting are important, and according to democracy, everyone should be able to vote. With a few exceptions of course.

B. Expansion of Suffrage
1. Since the framers of the Constitution could not decide how to deem franchise, they left it to the states. At first, the states had requirements such as land ownership. After 1800, these restrictions were lifted.
2. As land was gained in the West, these requirements were easier to fulfill, but were soon eliminated. Now all white males could vote. Expansion of suffrage beyond that took a little longer.

C. The Enfranchisement of Blacks
1. Even though the fifteenth amendment secured lifted restrictions on voting for blacks, they were still restricted in many ways. New poll taxes and literacy tests were aimed mainly at blacks. And the amendment did not say anything about private elections, so primaries became off limits for blacks. Finally, the threat of violence kept them away from the polls.
2. But suffrage did arrive in two parts. First, the courts decided in Smith v. Allright that primaries were open to all races, because they were a part of electing public officials. Then in the Voting Rights Act, discriminatory tests against blacks were suspended. State poll taxes soon when out afterwards.

D. Enfranchisement of Women
1. In the 1880’s Wyoming legalized women voting rights, a major victory for suffragette. Colorado followed soon, and suffragettes became more active. The next twelve states to follow were mostly in the West, where women broke from traditional roles. In 1919, Congress finally passed the nineteenth amendment, allowing all women to vote.

E. Evaluating the Expansion of Suffrage in America
1. The last major step in enfranchisement was lowering the voting age to eighteen in 1971. Through demonstrations and a civil war, court actions and legislation, voting was extended from white males to all people over eighteen. But the US looks pretty democratic, compared to other nations. Nineteen of twenty seven countries that allow free elections have a minimum voting age of eighteen, while seven others have higher requirements.

F. Voting on Policies
1. The Progressive Era introduced trust in the goodness of individuals and distrusted interest groups. It introduced the direct primary, where voters chose state candidates for a general election. Also, the use of the masses, with mechanisms like referendum and initiatives, was inspired by the Progressive Era
2. One study estimates 17000 referenda since 1898. Although some proposals to limit congressional terms were passed, The State court ruled later that these were unconstitutional, and were thus void in all the states that had adopted the legislation.
3. Referendum can be used to mount a campaign against a cause or idea. In 1990, Big Green was faced with a ten billion dollar campaign created by a referendum and petitions. Special interest groups have therefore become involved. Some studies showed that these mechanisms worked better at state and local levels than national levels.
4. Yet the US does not allow national referendum anyway. Citizens can use these mechanisms to influence power over the government and policies, but do they always improve policies?

G. Voting for Candidates
1. Voting allows voters to both pick a candidate they think best serves their interests, and to reverse a mistake and vote for the right official, in hopes of removing a bad candidate. In national politics, voters only decide on president and vice president, leaving other officials up to the President.
2. But in state and local elections, more variety is demanded. All types of officials are elected. At the local level alone, voters elect 600 of 15300 school boards in the nation. If more elections means better elections, than the US has the best elections around.
3. But even though numerous elections are held, they mean nothing without voter turnout. Every aspect of political participation is higher than other countries except in voting. If no voter turnout occurs, no amount of elections would make a difference.



Chapter 7: Political Participation

I. Explaining Political Participation

A. Patterns of Participation over Time
1. Studies show that participation has remained pretty steady over the years, with few exceptions. Ross Perot’s candidacy added a new element to the presidential election in 1992, spurring more participation. But not all participation is steady. Voting is the one area which shows a decreasing trend. And voting turnout is basically less when compared with other countries.

B. The Standard Socioeconomic Explanation
1. People with higher SES are more likely to participate in politics. This is due basically to a higher level of education, and awareness of the workings of politics. Yet conventional participation is measured more than unconventional participation. The relationship between socioeconomic status and conventional political participation is called the standard socioeconomic model of participation.
2. Unconventional participation is different. This is more related to youth and low SES levels. this is true in other countries, but studies in the US have shown the opposite. SES can of course not be the only guide to all the differences between political participation patterns.
3. Two other factors appear in participation patterns, race and gender. Although women have in the past showed lower participation rates, these differences have evened out. Blacks have also shown lower participation rates, but have again evened out when SES is taken into account. Out of all factors, education remains the most important. Those with more education show higher participation rates.

C. Low Voter Turnout in America
1. A five year period before 1972 showed a sharp decrease in voter turnout. But when the 26th amendment was passed, the electorate was increased, showing a lower rate of turnout. But why has voting continued to decrease while education increases? One theory is that government is not responsive enough, and therefore voting does not do much good.
2. Lower turnout in comparison with other countries may have some explanations. Voting is a two step process, where as in other counties registration is a burden more on the government. US citizens find it a nuisance to register and vote separately. A lack of political parties to motivate voters may also be a reason.
3. More aggressive campaigns tend to mobilize voters more effectively. Also, having to learn about the scores of candidates on a ballot requires much initiative, more than the actual voting process.

II. Participation and Freedom, Equality, and Order

A. Participation and Freedom
1. Freedom to participate warrants that voters should be able to use all assets to influence government. They should be able to participate as much and as often as they want. Obstacles to voting should therefore ideally be removed.

B. Participation and Equality
1. Each citizens ability to participate should be equal under this relationship. Elections are ideally disposed to this end. Rules for counting votes and ballot diffuse any differences between voters and resources. Individuals can also combine their vote to wield political power.

C. Participation and Order
1. Some types of change in participation promote order, some do not. Unconventional participation in particular can cause disorder. Take for example student unrest on college campuses during the Vietnam War. The 26th amendment allowed those students to actively participate by voting in government. The government was highly responsive
2. Ironically, those students did not demand voting rights. Some believe Congress passed the legislation to enfranchise youths and involve them in politics, thereby curbing disorder.

III. Participation and the Models of Democracy

A. Participation and Majoritarianism
1. Majoritarianism relies heavily on counting votes, and is therefore biased toward equality in political participation. A class bias can easily exist due to socioeconomic status patterns. No campaign can alter the trend of well educated citizens more likely to vote. This focus also limits the means which are viewed as acceptable for participation, by heavily relying on voting, and mass participation.

B. Participation and Pluralism
1. A decentralized government allows those who need governments help with problems a better choice. Means of participation are greatly increased. Multiple points of access are conducive to this purpose. pluralism allows citizens to be treated as individuals and to influence policy making in special circumstances.